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The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society

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Primatologist Frans de Waal has produced another book full of lively writing and thoughtful analysis, reminding us of our exquisite animal roots. In "The Age of Empathy," De Waal is out to set the record straight: too many people invoke "evolution" to justify treating each other in contemptuous ways. This has got to stop, because this modern version of "Social Darwinism" is a highly selective and distorted version of the kind of animals we humans are, as well as a wildly inaccurate interpretation of way natural selection works.

In short, we are NOT condemned by nature to treat each other badly. Rather, there is a much different and much pervasive aspect regarding the kind of animal we humans have evolved to be. We are highly groupish, often peace-loving beings who are well-tuned to look out for each other. Not that we always do this well, but there is plenty of reason to conclude that we are highly social in an empathetic way. In this book, De Waal accomplishes his goals with reference to ample evidence from human history and with meticulous observations and social experiments regarding our primate cousins.

Keep this book handy for the next time someone claims that they don't need to care about people who are struggling to make it "because that's the way of nature." This approach to life is a cop-out; it is certainly not justified by Darwin's work.

In this highly entertaining, lovingly written, and amply documented book, de Waal reverses his usual direction of argumentation, using the fact that primates exhibit rudimentary forms of human prosociality to assert that human sociality is fundamentally empathetic and altruistic. Indeed, de Waal suggests that chimpanzees exhibit a mix of hierarchical and egalitarian sensitivities, and empathetic and ruthlessly aggressive sensitivities similar to that of humans. De Waal does not even entertain the Romantic idea that humans are inherently benevolent but corrupted by an evil society, but he returns repeatedly to a critique of the American conservative tendency to view human nature as basically selfish. The bottom line is that de Waal develops a concept of human nature block by block, chapter by chapter, and then uses this concept to build a novel and very attractive political economy for our time.

The evidence for de Waal's model of human, monkey, and ape nature is a combination of anecdote (as in other de Waal books) and controlled laboratory experiment. The latter element is of course central, because people have been speculating about human and animal nature for centuries without even approaching a consensus. The major implication of this research for humans, which uses behavioral game theory and experimental economics, is that we now know with almost perfect certainty that humans are not the selfish sociopaths of traditional economics and sociobiology, but rather are motivated by a complex mix of self-regarding, other-regarding and fundamentally moral objectives. De Waal goes through this evidence enough to make his point, without becoming bogged down in the sort of detail that is of critical importance for experts in the field, but boring for the general reader. What is new in this book is a similar emphasis on controlled laboratory research on non-human primate "nature." His conclusion is that primates, as expected from elementary evolutionary biology, exhibit in rudimentary form, the same mixture of selfish and prosocial behaviors as found in humans.

One of the neuroscientific developments that I learned for the first time from this book is the relationship between Von Economo neurons (VEN cells) and what de Waal calls the "co-emergence hypothesis." This hypothesis holds that self-awareness (e.g., recognizing oneself in a mirror) and empathy (recognizing feelings in others) co-emerged in several mammal species, including humans, some apes, dolphins, whales, and elephants. The new fact is that VEN cells, which are long, spindle-like neurons that reach deep into the brain, connecting cortex to the more primitive parts of the brain, have been found in these, and only these, animals!

It is popular these days to treat the results of behavioral game theory as providing a fatal critique of economic theory and a shining endorsement of evolutionary biology. This is certainly not the case, and de Waal treatment in this book is balanced and accurate. In fact, the whole methodology of behavioral game theory is based on the economist's rational actor model, simply dropping the ancient prejudice that rationality implies selfishness. Indeed, it is my experience that economists have no problem embracing the fact that people have altruistic motives, whereas evolutionary biologists just can't seem to digest the idea that nature, red in tooth and claw, could ever produce a truly moral creature.

How natural selection, involving survival of the fittest, could produce morality, has been another major research question of the past two decades, and de Waal ably describes the basics of this research. Primates, including humans, are fundamentally social creatures who have developed behaviors and intentions that are costly to the individual but highly useful to the group. Groups that have many individuals who exhibit such prosocial behaviors simply do better than those that lack them, so they expand over time at the expense of groups composed of highly selfish individuals. There is endless debate among population biologists as to whether this dynamic is based on gene selection, individual selection, or group selection, but the issue is of limited importance, as compared with the fact that human nature, and more generally primate nature, is a complex intermixture of prosociality and selfishness.

While the implications of the research on humans is relatively clear and the interpretation given above widely shared (except for biologists who just can't bring themselves to believe that any critter could really be anything other than completely selfish, and a few other stragglers that have a political bone to pick), the same is not true for the interpretation of games played by non-humans. There are been extremely prominent primate researchers who have found non-human primates completely devoid of prosociality in the laboratory, while de Waal argues that this finding is due to placing non-human primate subjects in situations that they simply do not comprehend, and in situations that they do understand, they exhibit human prosocial behaviors in rudimentary form. Sometimes de Waal's argument is directly contradictory with well-known results in the literature, and we will just have to wait for the experts to come to agreement. I suspect that we will learn a lot about primate epistemology in the process.

This book is full of simple statements that are deeply insightful, and yet are completely incompatible with the received wisdom in various academic disciplines (I should warn the reader that I believe that the extreme parochialism of the behavioral disciplines is the major impediment of our time in understanding social behavior). Here is one of my favorites: "Instead of each individual independently weighing the pros and cons of his or her own actions, we occupy nodes within a tight network that connects all of us in both body and mind." (p. 63) By contrast, imitation is virtually unnoticed as a form of rational behavior in standard decision theory.

De Waal's political philosophy flows rather neatly from his analysis of human nature. De Waal is most hostile to the philosophy of material acquisitiveness and hard-nosed distain for the less well off, perfectly exhibited by the famous speech by Gordon Gekko in the movie Wall Street. "The point is, ladies and gentleman," Gekko announces, "that greed -- for lack of a better word -- is good. Greed is right. Greed works. Greed clarifies, cuts through, and captures the essence of the evolutionary spirit. Greed, in all of its forms -- greed for life, for money, for love, knowledge -- has marked the upward surge of mankind. And greed -- you mark my words -- will ... save ... that ... malfunctioning corporation called the USA." De Waal's point is not that material acquisition is not part of human nature, but rather it is only one facet of human nature, and if it appears in hypertrophied form unaccompanied by the empathetic side of human nature, the results for society are likely to be disastrous. Referring to the Gekko sentiment, de Waal says "...this is only half the truth. It misses by a mile the intensely social nature of our species. Empathy is part of our evolution, and not just a recent part, but an innate, age-old capacity." (p. 205)

De Waal's political philosophy, at its core, suggests that the twin models of man as acquisitive dominator and empathetic cooperator are both quite accurate, but they must be merged to forge a healthy society. "Both Europe and the United States pay a steep price, albeit different ones," he asserts, "for stressing one fairness ideal at the expense of the other....it is a false choice: it's not as though both fairness ideals couldn't be combined." (p. 198)

I only found one statement of de Waal's that I found questionable. "A society based purely on selfish motives and market forces," he says, "may produce wealth, yet it can't produce the unity and mutual trust that make life worthwhile." (p.221) I doubt very much that a society based purely on selfish motives could produce wealth, or indeed anything other than lives that are poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

What a timely book. I heard Frans De Waal give an interview on NRP's Diane Rehm show discussing his new book and immediately bought and read it. It was thought-provoking and makes you realize the similarities in human and animal behaviors. Cooperation, negotiation, kindness, and empathy are needed more than ever in families, organizations, and in politics. I hope we can learn some important lessons about our species from his extensive primate research. I enjoyed reading about Frans De Waal's work and past publications on the website: [...]

I've only read the first chapter so far but am IMPRESSED! with both the forthrightness and plain old correctness-type rightness of his words. I'd like to see copies of this book provided in hotel dresser drawers instead of the Judeo-Christian or Qu'ran or Buddhist offerings found in most of them. If it's true that some travelers want to read something that will make them feel pretty good about being humans, this book ought to do it! De Waal is applying the massive knowledge he gained from years of being a first-class primatologist to help readers correctly understand certain economic situations originally misinterpreted by "social Darwinist" H.Spencer and still being misinterpreted by "materialist fundamentalists" R.Dawkins and D.Dennett. (Naturally, religious zealots of many sorts either ignore or repudiate Darwin since his observations do not seem to support the poetically expressed claims they take as historical reports.) For years now I've been disconcerted that so many of today's economists are still stuck in classical (linear)theory when it seems more of them would move on to recognizing the need for admitting nonlinear chaotic processes going on. Maybe De Waal's observations from a different point of view will help them loosen their grip on that comforting but out of date state of being.

This is the first book I've read by Frans de Waal. It is written in simple, accessible language and is positively stuffed with provocative ideas and anecdotal stories. The premise, that empathetic behaviors and tendencies predate our evolutionary pedigree, directly addresses underrepresented views in both evolutionary biology as well as popular conceptions of our own animal nature. I found his unapologetic attitude about the political implications of his work to be personally refreshing and scientifically defensible. However, here's what really sells the book: in casual conversation I found myself repeatedly (and indirectly) referencing "The Age of Empathy" as a touchstone for an astonishing array of tangential interdisciplinary topics. My only complaint is that I would have preferred a longer, more complex book on the subject.

Before you read this book you might find it interesting to view a recent popular photograph that has been a big Internet hit. The one I'm thinking of, in case you haven't seen it, is of a deceased chimpanzee, a female with high stature in her group, being borne by her human handlers on a stretcher, viewed by a dozen or so of her still living chimp companions looking on with expressions of grave concern, possibly even grief (I found it on the National Geographic Magazine blog, posted October 29, 2009). Although the photo appeared after this book was published, Frans de Waal's The Age of Empathy suggests why grief might indeed be a very apt interpretation.

De Waal presents the evidence from studies of animal behavior, mostly of primates, to demonstrate that certain non-human species experience positive social emotions that suggest concern for others. At least some of what he reports will not be new to many readers, but his coverage is relatively comprehensive and he is one of those accomplished scientists whose journalistic writing style is easy to absorb, at times even lively (an example: "... all that science seems to have learned from chatting `dolphinese' with [dolphins] is that lone male dolphins are keenly interested in female researchers").

De Waal offers an overall framework that is helpful in promoting an understanding of just what it is animals are experiencing when we see them behave socially, but unfortunately his best picture of it does not appear until after more than 200 pages. The picture is one of nested Russian dolls, with the inner doll representing state-matching (emotional contagion) at the most basic level, stepped up to concern for others (consolation) in the middle doll, then escalating to the perspective-taking (targeted helping) represented by the largest outer doll.

Many animals are capable of synchrony and mimicry, doing as others do, perhaps involuntarily, just as we often do when we see others yawn, for example. Certain species, a smaller group, seem to recognize that others may have intentions similar to their own (jays often act as if they expect other jays to steal their hidden food). Others, including monkeys and rats, have been observed reacting to the grief or pain of their fellow creatures, but it could be just self-protection (for example, turning away). Few species, however, have been convincingly shown to exhibit targeted helping, such as when chimps console companions who have been involved in a fight. De Waal believes that some, notably chimps and dolphins, have even risen to the level of altruism, helping others at some risk to themselves (he gives examples).

Sympathy requires more than empathy, de Waal suggests, since it is not automatic; it requires the actor not only to sense the feelings of another, but also to take action to help alleviate the other's plight. Monkeys seem to feel the distress of others, he thinks, but they may lack the cognitive capacity to figure out the others' needs well enough so that they might meaningfully intervene.

Some of the differences in sympathetic capabilities across species may be associated with what de Waal calls the "co-emergence" of sympathy and a sense of self. When human children are tested for their ability to recognize themselves in a mirror the age threshold of success lines up with their tendency to begin to act pro-socially. De Waal extrapolates this theory to certain other animals. He points to a possible neurological basis, Von Economo neurons (VEN), which appear in only human and ape brains (although he allows elephants and dolphins into the sympathy club, as well).

De Waal addresses animals' reciprocity behaviors and possible sense of social equity. In one of his more notable experiments, a monkey refused to cooperate when given a cucumber instead of the (more desirable) grapes the researcher handed its companion, although if both monkeys got cucumbers both continued to cooperate. De Waal says this reaction shows an "inequity aversion," not the same thing as a "fairness norm." To demonstrate the fairness norm a monkey would have to show displeasure when some other monkey, not himself, was slighted.

De Waal's larger point in all of this is to underscore that humans' positive social emotions did not emerge ex nihilo, independent of our primate ancestors. He recognizes, of course, that neither humans nor other primates are purely either competitive or cooperative, that both are both social and selfish. These conclusions seem obvious enough, but perhaps there are some who must be convinced. If so, The Age of Empathy should do the job.

Frans de Waal is already well known as primate researcher. This book informs about his and others' new research in the area. In just 10-15 years an enrmous change has taken place: before we thought that humans differed from animals because we had tools, culture, emotions, empathy & lots of other things. Now we know better: it seems that only language remains as a clear separating line. The most interesting thing is that we know now that the "theory of mind" and empathy, and with it helping others, are common among apes, elephants, whales etc. The book is highly informative, a little too simplistic (the intended audience is quite broad, but thought provoking. Just think what the results mean for animal protection. Or for a social scientist like me who is surrounded by people who believe that human societies are unique and only social constructions...

I full-heartedly recommend this passionate, entertaining, informative, and overdue corrective to a common interpretation of the Darwinian "struggle" of the species. I will simplify by saying that Mr. de Waal makes it clear that human behavior, considered in the geological time scale, is different only in degree from that of other species; particularly mammals, and more so primates--his specialization. More specifically, humans are not alone: as he notes, we are not limited to looking through telescopes for interesting life elsewhere in the universe.

The book is well-written. Yet the absence of footnotes makes the abundant bibliography less useful and the line of argument to sometimes appear looser than it might have been. I would have liked it if Mr. de Waal's apparent diplomacy had not prevented a more direct treatment of his discussions with Richard Dawkins viz. the "selfish" gene. The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society

Frans de Waal has produced another excellent book with `The Age of Empathy.' He thus continues to produce breakthrough insights that began with his classic book, Chimpanzee Politics. In this book he examines the phenomenon of empathy from an evolutionary perspective. He does so by drawing upon a wealth of data from biological observations and experiments that includes primates of course but numerous other species as well. The evidence and the story that he develops are both interesting and revealing. And the story builds a strong case to support the thesis that even `advanced' emotional and mental processes such as empathy are not unique to humans, but have observable antecedents among numerous other species within the animal kingdom. His thesis follows and enriches the tradition begun by biologist Donald Griffin in his book, Animal Thinking. His thesis also ties in comfortably with the arguments presented by Daniel Dennett in his book, Freedom Evolves.

One of the most interesting aspects of the book is the description of similarities between the behaviour of children and primates. Experiments with monkeys and chimpanzees display amazingly parallel behavioural tendencies with that of human infants. The dominant theme is a shared aversion to perceived injustice. This finding is consistent with the field of evolutionary psychology of course. But reading de Waal's book is both exciting and instructive of how very deep some of our emotional roots lie within evolutionary history.

The author draws a number of political conclusions from the evidence he presents. His conclusions are consistent with a humanist philosophy. While I personally am able to relate to the conclusions, I have to admit that the ideas are only partially developed. But the book offers a clear challenge nonetheless. Conservative ideologies are almost certainly based upon assumptions regarding human behaviour that biological science is showing to be false. The onus is placed upon serious practitioners in political philosophy to develop new theories of socio-political organization that are based upon sound biological science. As it happens this is my argument as well in The Bridge.

David Hillstrom

This book is not a hard scientific review of the literature on empathy - it's main premise is to challenge the simplistic view, based loosely on Darwin, that society is about "survival of the fittest" and "natural selection". Yes, this book has a bias -- guess what, most books do! You read them for the author's point-of-view. You read them with a critical mind.

What Frans de Waal studies is empathy in monkeys -- thus a bias *towards* empathy. He tells stories based on research about animal studies and he also tells anecdotes. He generalizes some things to humans. He challenges the notion that human society is ONLY competitive, war-like, selfish. He posits that cooperative behavior is necessary for most mammalian animal societies to exist (we are social animals, we need to the group for security, for status, for many things.)

What I found interesting was his definition and description of empathy (russian doll analogy) and the animal research into fairness and communal survival, and what happens inside/outside of groups. And key is how empathy is the foundation of cooperative behavior. For that it is worth the read.

The books is an easy read but feels a little long-winded at times, and could probably use a good edit (but I say that about many books.) It's not a "scannable" book - to get the most out of it you have to read it. I think it's worth the effort.