The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections of a Primatologist [Hardcover]

Frans De Waal (Author)

Book Description

Publication Date: January 17, 2001

What if apes had their own culture rather than one their human observers imposed on them? What if they reacted to situations with behavior learned through observation of their elders (culture) rather than with pure genetically coded instinct (nature)? Contemplating such a possibility is bound to shake centuries-old cultural convictions. In answering these questions, The Ape and the Sushi Master, by the eminent primatologist Frans de Waal, corrects our arrogant assumption that humans are the only form of intelligent life to have made the leap from the natural to the cultural domain. The book's title derives from an analogy de Waal draws between the way behavior is transmitted in ape society and the way sushi-making skills are passed down from sushi master to apprentice. Like the apprentice, young apes watch their group mates at close range, absorbing the methods and lessons of each of their elders' actions. Responses long thought to be instinctive are actually learned behavior, de Waal argues, and constitute ape culture. A delightful, partly autobiographical mix of anecdotes, rigorous research, and fascinating speculation, The Ape and the Sushi Master challenges our most basic assumptions about who we are and how we differ from other animals. Apes are holding a new mirror up to us in which they are not human caricatures but members of our extended family with their own resourcefulness and dignity. For over a century, UFO spotters have told us that we are not alone. In The Ape and the Sushi Master, Frans de Waal makes the equally startling claim that, biologically speaking, we never were.

Editorial Reviews

Amazon.com Review

To watch apes dressed in human clothing and mimicking human manners--an old standby in films and television shows--can make some human viewers uncomfortable, writes the noted primatologist Frans de Waal. Somehow, by doing so, the apes are crossing some line in the sand, a line that speaks to issues of culture, which humans alone are presumed to have. But culture, in de Waal's estimation, does not mean using an oyster fork properly or attending smart gallery openings. Instead, it "means that knowledge and habits are acquired from others--often, but not always, the older generation." Culture implies communication and social organization, and in this, he notes, humans by no means have a monopoly. A sushi chef learns by acquiring knowledge and habits from more accomplished masters, but so do chimpanzees learn to wash bananas in jungle streams, and so do birds learn to break open mollusks on the rocks below them.

Closely examining anthropocentric theories of culture, de Waal counterposes the notion of anthropodenial, "the a priori rejection of shared characteristics between humans and animals when in fact they may exist." He takes issue with "selfish gene" theories of behavior, arguing spiritedly that there are better models for explaining why animals--and humans--do what they do. And, against Aristotle, he argues that humans are not the only political animals, if by politics we mean a social process "determining who gets what, when, and how." What animals and humans clearly share, he concludes, are societies in which stability is an impossibility--an observation that may disappoint utopians, but one that helps explain some of the world's peculiarities.

Perhaps no human alive knows more about the great apes than does Frans de Waal. With this book, he ably shows that he knows a great deal about humans, too. Students of biology, culture, and communication will find much food for thought in his pages. --Gregory McNamee

From Publishers Weekly

Though evidence suggests that animals can teach skills to members of their group, appreciate aesthetics and express empathy, Western scientists are often reluctant to interpret such behavior in cultural terms, claims zoologist and ethologist de Waal (Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes and Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape). "Our culture and dominant religion have tied human dignity and self-worth to our separation from nature and distinctness from other animals," he writes, arguing that this dualism prevents us from recognizing how similar human and animal behavior can be. De Waal cites fascinating examples of animals acting in ways typically thought the exclusive purview of humans (apes that enjoy creating paintings or engaging in nonreproductive sexual activity; rescue dogs that become depressed when they find only corpses). Inspired by the work of Japanese primatologist Kinji Imanishi, whose cultural tradition emphasizes interconnectedness among living things, de Waal argues for an end to the West's anthropocentric bias in science. De Waal prefers a "Darwistotelian" approach, which would seek "to understand humanity in the wider context of nature" and build a concept of human identity "around how we are animals that have taken certain capacities a significant step farther" than have other species. Lucid and engaging, though at times loosely focused, de Waal's "reflections" will likely capture the attention not only of zoologists and social scientists but of animal-rights advocates as well. Agent, Elizabeth Ziemska. (Mar. 1)
Copyright 2001 Reed Business Information, Inc.

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Product Details

• Hardcover: 256 pages
• Publisher: Basic Books (January 17, 2001)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 0465041752
• ISBN-13: 978-0465041756
• Product Dimensions: 8.1 x 5.7 x 1.5 inches
• Shipping Weight: 1.4 pounds
• Average Customer Review: 4.6 out of 5 stars  See all reviews (17 customer reviews)
• Amazon Best Sellers Rank: #1,667,276 in Books (See Top 100 in Books)

Customer Reviews

Most Helpful Customer Reviews

15 of 16 people found the following review helpful:

4.0 out of 5 stars Monkey do is not necessarily monkey think !, October 16, 2001

By 

Anthony R. Dickinson (WashU Med School, USA) - See all my reviews
(REAL NAME)   

This review is from: The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections of a Primatologist (Hardcover)

Writing with a broad, non-academic audience in mind, 'The Ape and the Sushi Master' provides an enjoyable and informative exploration of our human cultural biases. With respect to the more commonly reflexive leanings towards anthropomorphism when reflecting upon non-human animal behaviour, De Waal repeatedly reminds us of its extents, rather than constraints throughout this volume. Thematic throughout the chapters is the view that little is to be gained from the rather naively claimed evolutionary dichotomy of 'culture Vs nature' (as has always been the case for the equally problematic and inane 'nature Vs nurture' debate in my view). Whether reading this book will help prevent arguments continuing in the struggle for one side against the other, De Waal clearly states the circularity of these positions, including the (non-obvious to many) fact that they do not necessarily provide opposing views. Even for the more academic reader, this point is made in a way many students of animal behaviour (and indeed, perhaps, some of their professors) might benefit from reading. I would strongly recommend this general reading book if only for that reason.
The prevailing view recurrent throughout the chapters is that culture is a part of human nature (hence the circularity of the false dichotomy), and, in the mold of Lorenz, or the more popular writer Desmond Morris, De Waal does not dismiss the continuity between human and non-human animal behaviour. With regards any specific human cognitive developments, however, the evolutionary antecedents of such in the comparative literature are dealt with at a purely anecdotal level in this book (though a welcome set of notes and references provide some direction for those interested to check out some primary sources).

Of interest perhaps to those wanting to better understand human sexual behaviour (and its variations), De Waal includes an informative chapter concerning the bonobo chimpanzee 'kamasutra primates'. These are presented as a highly sociosexual species for reasons other than providing solely a male territorial imperative. Distinct from his earlier 'Chimpanzee Politics', De Waal's commentary here is consistent with his more recent ideas concerning reconciliation behaviour and social bonding via mutual sex in both single and mixed pairs/groups of apes. Citing the prudishness of (especially American) humans in preventing this story being more widely known (and well told in this volume, Ch.3), this bonobo chimpanzee behaviour is put forward as the most likely contender for mis-anthropomorphism since that of their chimpanzee cousin Pan troglodites' following discussions provoked by Darwin's 'Origin of Species'.

The rather puzzling reference to sushi in the title can be explained by the inclusion of two interwoven themes appearing throughout the volume. The first is De Waal's championing the contribution of the pioneering work of Japanese primatologists in semi-naturalistic ape colonisation studies (e.g., the longitudinal studies which claimed the cultural transmission of potato washing). The second is reference to the strict training regime of the Japanese Sushi chef, who undergoes upwards of three years of observational learning from a sushi Master Chef (human cultural transmission of fish dressing) prior to their exercising any of the skills required. Both these sets of findings (the former especially enjoyable to read from this book) bear upon another pair of terms of contention, 'learning and instinct', but less is explicitly made of this old bone here than demands comment in review. Perhaps a comment should be made here, however, with regards De Waal's claim for the existence of non-food related contingency rewards in Ch. 6. Although the evidence remains in a sense anecdotal, and without denying behaviours as being otherwise goal-directed, De Waal suggests that social learning is 'socially motivated'. The claim here is that 'social orientation feeds mimicry', and for reinforcement (reward contingency), the rewards are thus simply those of social conformism (and the benefits such acceptance and 'fitting in' can provide). Perhaps an extention of 'chimpanzee Politics' after all ?

Although I really liked De Waal's discussions of (actually attacks upon) naive cultural anthropomorphism, I look forward to seeing whether his term to describe the converse condition of being in 'anthropodenial' gains currency in the future. De Waal does make the occasional unwarranted claim himself, however, concerning the mentation and attributions of his non-human animal subjects. For example, we read that "[animals]... have only a vague understanding of what others are doing" (p.19) and, "We [humans] are the only animals with the concept of paternity as a basis for fatherhood" (p.73). The dangers of pursuing the types of research questions being adressed here and the need for a more empirical approach to their study are clearly evident in the production of these kinds of statements. But that is not to say that it cannot be achieved. An understanding of group dynamics should always consider the dynamics of its individual constituents, and it will always be important for us to distinguish between what a given animal DOES, from what it might be capable of thinking and knowing. In this sense, the apprentice sushi chef should certainly know a lot more than our observation of his/her overt behaviour might lead us to believe.

9 of 9 people found the following review helpful:

5.0 out of 5 stars An excellent, thought provoking, highly readable book, March 26, 2001

By 

J. Michael Showalter (Nashville, TN United States) - See all my reviews
(VINE VOICE)   

This review is from: The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections of a Primatologist (Hardcover)

I was delighted when I saw that this book had come out. For those who had never read de Waal, both his 'Chimpanzee Politics' and book on bonobos were great books as general reading-- outside of the context of primate anthropology. He is an engaging writer with a good story to tell.

De Waal wants to make culture away from being a human-centric concept. Such, he uses stories from the world of monkies to make his point: animals have group-learned concepts and ways of doing things that differ from independant populations (I wish I could say this more eloquently....) He can flat out write.

Buy this book. Read this book.

8 of 8 people found the following review helpful:

5.0 out of 5 stars The ape lit up his pipe, sat down, and said..., May 12, 2002

By 

"michaeleve" - See all my reviews

This review is from: The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections of a Primatologist (Hardcover)

A joke that begins like this is typical of crude and simplistic anthropomorphism and is illustrative of why scientists are so scared of being called anthropomorphic. The consequence of such a label is usually a joke at the their expense: "Have you heard the one about the scientist who walks into a store with a parrot on his shoulder?" Franz De Waal is neither a subscriber to "joke-a-day" nor to such base forms of anthropomorphism. He starts out by mentioning that for most scientists, interest in their field began with a love for nature. Such a closeness to animals "creates the desire to understand them, and not just a little piece of them, but the whole animal." In such a venture good scientists employ all available tools and consequently "anthropomorphism is not only inevitable, it is a powerful tool."

De Waal is convincing, but on this point he need not be overwhelmingly so since most scientists have no problem distinguishing between childish and humorous anthropomorphism, and that which is useful in providing anecdotal observations on animal behavior. De Waal states that in the earliest days of ethology (the naturalistic study of animal behavior) and long before sociobiology argued the point, the very idea of any "continuity between human and animal behavior" was anathema to all. Things have changed and the dividing line between nature/nurture is no longer under attack, (to remain a target something must at least exist and that line is now so blurred as to be unidentifiable). De Waal has his sights set elsewhere and rips "a maximum number of holes in the nature/culture divide." He convincingly shows that not only do animals have a culture, but that it is robust, diversified, and learned through a process of imitation. De Waal shows that in Eastern cultures there is little resistance to the idea of animal culture. He spends some time looking at the work of Japanese primatologist Kinji Imanishi. The Japanese approach is another method of primatology and it gave De Waal the idea for his book's title. The APE AND THE SUSHI MASTER speaks to the similar teaching techniques used by mother apes and Sushi chefs. Apprentice cooks and young apes both learn through years of observation and imitation.

Reading this book will give you insights into not only how we view animals and what the nature of culture is, but it also has something to say about how we view ourselves. The book is very well written and is aimed at a general reading audience. De Waal is thoughtful and offers his opinions in a non forceful manner. For a book that deals with such contentious subjects, it's refreshing that there is very little invective. Blind support for "selfish genes" is however justifiably criticized and De Waal shows that altruism and cooperation are equally as likely outcomes of natural selection. It's now time for us to emerge from "anthropodenial" about animal culture and "of being tied to how we are unlike any animal". Instead we are urged to adopt a more humanistic view - and concomitantly, a more humane view of animals - both grounded in science. We may then believe that "human identity [is] built around how we are animals that have taken certain capacities a significant step farther."