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An Artist in Treason: The Extraordinary Double Life of General James Wilkinson

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I have a degree in history and I have a liking for well-written and well-researched works on historical subjects. Andro Linklater's "An Artist in Treason" is both. Encompassing the life and activities of General James Wilkinson (1757-1825), officer in the American Revolution, commander of the American army and governor of Louisiana Territory, Andro's sweeping work touches upon many major events in the early development of the United States. This is due not only to Mr. Linklater's obvious interest in the subject, but because of Wilkinson's far-reaching roles as senior U.S. general, explorer, and spy in the pay of Spain.

Wilkinson's is a cautionary tale in many respects. It is also by far the best example I've seen in historical biography of the old pagan Norse concept of creating one's own fate. General Wilkinson could have had it all. That he did not was due not to the vagaries of fortune, divine intervention or predestination. It was due entirely to his own actions, for he created the landscape upon which he was forced to operate when, faced by British invasion, he should have been at the height of his powers and most importantly, the right man in the right place at the right time. If the definition of hero is someone who can rise above their fate, then Wilkinson fails the test, for he did not.

Despite some of the positive results of his military career (keeping the army loyal to the civilian government is no small thing), it is difficult to find anything good to say about a man like Wilkinson, who betrayed not only his country but most of those who, at one time or another, had come to trust or befriend him (Thomas Jefferson being the sole exception outside of his family). But Mr. Linklater does not indulge in vilification and instead lets the story tell itself. He makes no excuses for the conduct of those who participated in the great drama of Wilkinson's life. It is impossible to argue with the facts as they are known. In this case, thanks to General Wilkinson's own efforts at preserving his prodigious correspondence, and to the records found in Spanish official archives of his treasonous correspondence, we have a great many facts and Mr. Linklater's handling of them is masterful.

I did note with interest that Mr. Linklater did not mention the death (or alleged assassination of) Meriwether Lewis. Stephen E. Ambrose, in his "Undaunted Courage", dismisses the idea, but in "The Death of Meriwether Lewis", James E. Starrs and Kira Gale accuse General Wilkinson of killing the great explorer. Whether Linklater dismisses the idea out of hand or simply thought it irrelevant for some reason, I would like to know. It is a shame that he did not at least mention the allegations. I am left to ponder the question based on what I now know of Wilkinson's character. He was certainly a ruthless individual and thought nothing of sending men to their deaths (for example, sending a party off into Spanish territories and then alerting the Spanish they were coming) but I do not know if the Wilkinson in Mr. Linklater's account was the sort who would actually arrange an assassination, and if he was, if he had (or thought he had) sufficient cause in this case. I can only stress that it is a great pity Mr. Linklater did not see fit to discuss the matter.

The true charm of this book is in the author's engaging style of writing. Seldom have I found a work of nonfiction as difficult to put down as a good novel, but this can honestly be said of "An Artist in Treason." Mr. Linklater's style is reminiscent of Robert K. Massie with the difference that Mr. Linklater let's you know where he got the information. All in all, a brilliant piece of historical writing and highly recommended to anyone interested in this period of American history.

James Wilkinson's name pops up constantly in the history of the first twenty-five years of the American Republic, seldom in an edifying way. Rumors (and accusations) abounded at the time that Wilkinson was for years a spy for Spain, which for much of the period was still a powerful presence across what is now the southern United States from Florida through Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. Later he was said to have been a co-conspirator with Aaron Burr in his alleged attempt to carve an empire for himself by combining these territories with some of the old southwestern states such as Tennessee and Kentucky. Although Wilkinson hotly and effectively denied these accusations, it is now clear that he did spy for Spain while serving as the senior officer in the US Army and even swore personal loyalty as a subject of the king of Spain.

Wilkinson's connection with the "Burr conspiracy" is slightly more obscure. Wilkinson clearly corresponded with Burr during the earlier stages of the conspiracy and Burr certainly thought that Wilkinson would support him. With his support would come the support of the US Army which, while quite small by both contemporary and modern standards, was by far the most powerful force in what was then the West. Wilkinson later pointed to the danger of war between Spain and the US that seemed quite likely at the time and claimed that his dealings with Burr were aimed at using Burr and his supporters to assist the Army should war occur. Wilkinson argued that he did not realize that Burr was seeking to break up the United States. It may even have been true since Burr himself seems to have been confused (and certainly less than forthcoming) about his ultimate goals.

In the end Wilkinson stuck with the United States, helped to reveal the conspiracy and kept the Army loyal. Wilkinson's decision certainly derailed whatever Burr's plans were. With the knowing complicity of the Jefferson administration, Wilkinson was acclaimed as one of the country's saviors.

These were the high points of his career in treachery, but Wilkinson was fully capable of disloyalty on a personal level. Many a business partner found himself stiffed and Wilkinson's ability to shift his loyalty successfully from one military superior to another as career advancement seemed to require was awe inspiring. Among other things his charm, personality and ability to flatter were powerful. So far as his military career went, moreover, Wilkinson was good with troops, a strong disciplinarian, brave and effective in combat and a good leader. Over the course of his career he convinced every president from Washington through Madison (and even to some extent Monroe) that it was in their political interest to ignore, at least publicly, his questionable activities (of which they had ample evidence).

Wilkinson has often been the subject of professional historical writing, much of it in history journals, monographs and other professional historical literature. I, at least, am unaware of a significant biography aimed at a general audience in recent times. Linklater has done the General justice. He seems to have consulted the relevant contemporary materials (including Wilkinson's multivolume memoirs) and certainly seems quite conversant with the historical work done since. His writing style is engaging and clear. Linklater sympathizes to a degree with Wilkinson but his book is no mere hagiography. He amply describes the General's many flaws as well as his more positive attributes. Linklater, to his credit, also abstains from what must have been a powerful temptation to psychoanalyze Wilkinson's complex personality.

Linklater's book seems to be reliable, well-researched and is certainly highly readable. It also shows clearly how chancy history is. Had a few things or people jumped in a different direction than they did -as they certainly could have--the history of this country and of the world would have been quite different. Highly recommended.

At first glance, one might wonder as to why James Wilkinson is not as infamous as Benedict Arnold and Aaron Burr. After all, while serving as one of the highest ranking generals (and indeed THE highest ranking for a time) during the first decades of our democracy, he was also on the payroll of Spain as an informant. But once you read An Artist in Treason, you might reach the conclusion that he was little more than a scheming opportunist, skilled at ingratiating himself to the agents of the Spanish king, while making turning American friends into enemies and back again. Most traitors create harm to their country or cause. Foiled by his enemies, fate or his own flexible backbone, Wilkinson accomplished little more than paying his debts (which given his spending habits was no mean feat. The man was essentially a world class brown noser.

That's not to denigrate Andro Linklater's complex profile of a complex man, and the sheer number of enemies that he made would mark him as an accomplished careerist (had he been born 200 years later, I'm sure he would have given Ken Lay a run for his money at Enron). But I am a little ambivalent about this book. Wilkinson crossed paths (and virtual swords) with most of our Founding Fathers, which might alone make him worthy of a serious biography like this. But Linklater's story telling left me feeling a little flat. At times, the narrative becomes a little disjointed, and the author does little to disguise his intense distaste for his biographee.

What Linklater does best is to illustrate how an American Brigadier General could receive payments from the Spanish Crown, contrary to his nation's interests, and still have the grudging support of George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; surviving not one but three boards of inquiry and innumerable published charges. This is a selection for serious historians, not for the novice.

Sometimes very good biographies are written by authors with great distaste for their subjects, and often his distaste is fully justified, but more often the author's personal dislike becomes rather tiring, this is a splendid example. Influenced cleary by his understandabe affection for one of the heroes of his previous book, Measuring America: How an Untamed Wilderness Shaped the United States and Fulfilled the Promise of Democracy, Linklater is determined to see nothing not repugnant in Wilkinson's character or abilities. Going so far as to blame Benedict Arnold's outright treason on his anti-hero.

Wilkinson is one of the shadier characters in the American Revolution and Early Republic, but by no means exceptional. His treachery, in becoming a Spanish pensioner, and his apparent early efforts to separate Kentucky from the United States in the 1780s is well documented, but at each point in his career where his treachery could have damaged the United States, he somehow ended up finding himself on the side of the country and the constitution. In such diverse matters as defending the authority of the civilian government, in this case Jefferson, over the army, and exposing the Burr Conspiracy, at the critical points Wilkinson made the patriotic choice, even if not always for the purest of motives.

Interestingly enough, Andro Linklater, finds these particular moments to be his greatest treacheries. Linklater goes on at length a Wilkinson's betrayal by agreeing with his political masters in reducing the professional army in the late 1790s, and his revealing of Burr's plot is classified as betrayal. Even his support for the chain of command against "his patron" Benedict Arnold, is treated as a terrible crime. One of my favorite moments of the author calling Wilkinson out, is that upon becoming governor of the Louisiana Territory (later Missouri) his lack of patriotism is evidenced in his willingness to stand up for Creole landowners against American settlers who had come to erase their titles with forged documents.

This sort of blindness reminds me of Caro's Means of Ascent (The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Volume 2)" where the rather odious, racist, and essentially corrupt Coke Stevens is turned into a saint, because he was the victim of Lyndon Johnson's superior campaigning. It is not attractive.

There are also numerous minor errors, laudanum is made from Opium, not morphine, and when describing Wilkinson's actions in 1799, Linklater refers to his knowkedge that both the possible future presidents, Jefferson and Aaron Burr, were confederates of his. Since Burr's close brush with the presidency is usually attributed to technical error among the electors, and Jefferson's real opponent was Adams, if Wilkinson had known of this possibility in 1799 it would be both a giant bombshell and proof of his being the greatest conspirator in history. There are other errors as well, and these do not inspire confidence.

The included maps are among the worst I have ever seen, which among other errors, place Fort Washington, Ohio (the future Cincinatti) North of Philidelphia, and confusing the Calcasieu River in Louisiana, that was one of the disputed borders of Texas with a village North of Taos, New Mexico.

One of the nation's hallmark beliefs, bequeathed to the citizens of the United States by the founders, is a firm commitment to civilian control of the military. George Washington certainly believed in it; so did rivals John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. So too, did Alexander Hamilton and a host of others. That is, except for one of the least well-known founders, James Wilkinson. As commander of the U.S. army in the early republic he aided in the so-called Burr Conspiracy that sought by military action to establish a separate nation in the Louisiana territory. This very fine biography of Wilkinson relates his life and career.

Some might question my assertion that Wilkinson was one of the revered founders of the United States, but he was a Revolutionary War general and a hero in the War for Independence. He also became in 1796 general in command of the regular army and after Thomas Jefferson purchased Louisiana from Napoleon Bonaparte, Wilkinson was named territorial governor of northern Louisiana. But Wilkinson was also a traitor who was a spy on the Spanish payroll, with the code name of Agent 13, and a co-conspirator with Aaron Burr in a supposed plot to overthrow constitutional rule in the Louisiana Purchase territory during the first decade of the nineteenth century.

James Wilkinson (1757-1825) has only had a few biographies dedicated to his life and career, and that is probably appropriate. M.R. Werner's 1941 biography, "The Admirable Trumpeter," surprisingly not mentioned in this book's otherwise extensive bibliography, exposed both Wilkinson's propensity for conspiracy and deception as well as his positive accomplishments. This modern biography by writer Andro Linklater, recites what we already knew about Wilkinson and his intrigues as well as adding to it additional details on his colorful career. Despite genuine skills Linklater generally agrees with historian Frederick Jackson Turner's characterization of Wilkinson as "the most consummate artist in treason that the nation ever possessed," even using part of this quote in his title for this book. Other historians have also characterized James Wilkinson in equally colorful language that Linklater might have appropriated in his title. Robert Leckie called him "a general who never won a battle or lost a court-martial--an allusion to Wilkinson's two trials, one for bribery in 1811 and a second for dereliction of duty in 1815. He was acquitted both times. In addition, Temple Bodley once appropriately concluded about Wilkinson, "He had considerable military talent, but used it only for his own gain."

Andro Linklater would agree with all of these assessments. Reading this book makes one want to take a shower afterward, as he brings to life all of James Wilkinson's foilables, follies, and chicanery. He was both charming and ruthless in equal parts and seemingly at any point in his dealings with others, and this comes through well in "An Artist in Treason." It is an outstanding reading experience.

Of course, the centerpiece of "An Artist in Treason" is Wilkinson's role in the plot by ex-Vice President Aaron Burr to what was believed an attempt split of the Louisiana Purchase, or at least a sizable chunk of it, from the United States and establishment of a separate nation on the frontier. Burr organized a cabal of disaffected politicians, military officers, planters, and businessmen to take possession of Louisiana and perhaps Texas and other parts of the Southwest. The details of the Burr conspiracy are masked in the mists of time; Burr claimed he was undertaking filibuster operations in Spanish territory and meant the United States no harm. As Linklater makes clear Wilkinson helped Burr garner troops and materiel for a campaign against the Spanish certainly, and perhaps the United States. When this conspiracy became known, President Thomas Jefferson had Burr arrested and tried for treason. Wilkinson turned against Burr, and was the star witness in his trial. Few accepted Wilkinson's story of the Burr Conspiracy in totality, thinking it an attempt to shift blame for his actions to further personal ambitions, and Burr was acquitted for lack of evidence. Linklater dramatically captures the charm that Wilkinson could exude and shows how he used it to advantage to return to a place of trust after the trial.

Andro Linklater's biography of General James Wilkinson is an elegantly written account of the life of a scoundrel who used his position to gain wealth and privilege in both the U.S. and New Spain. It is an elegantly written and argued book.

This is an outstanding work, both in terms of its research and its readability. I knew of Wilkinson before reading the book, but had no idea how important he was in the early days of the nation, especially the early west which, at the time, was the territory up and down the Mississippi River. His early life, education, and medical training, his participation in the Revolution in the company of George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and other important players in the American Revolution reflects how small the world was in the early 1800's. His Spanish spycraft, infatuation with Thomas Jefferson, daliance and rebutal of Aaron Burr, and the conundrum of his ultimate loyalty to the US, are all told against the landscape of his personal foibles, effusive personality, and his double dealing desire for enrichment. This is an excellent and very readable book, especially for those interested in this important period of history. Spanish Moss

"His actions were the most treasonous and dangerous of any in American history"

If, like 99.9% of your contemporaries, you assume that the above quote refers to Revolutionary War traitor Benedict Arnold, you would be incorrect. The subject of the above reference is General James Wilkinson, Revolutionary War soldier and subsequent Commanding General of the United States Army under the first four Presidents of the Republic.

I have read dozens of histories from the founding of our country and the early years of the Republic, but can not recall every seeing his name in print. That he has become such an obscure figure, in light of his position and actions is something of a surprise. As a mere 17 year old volunteer, Wilkinson advanced quickly in the Colonial Army, attaching himself to the staffs of such rising stars as Nathanial Greene, Benedict Arnold and Horatio Gates. He was present at the Battle of Trenton, where he caught the attention of George Washington.

Despite rising rapidly in the ranks, Wilkinson was always on the lookout for opportunities in which to enrich himself, and retired from the Army at age 20. Through marriage, he inherited an estate in Maryland which he was subsequently unable to support. He moved to the frontier and became something of a success in Kentucky, speculating in land and goods while becoming politically active.

At the time, Kentucky was isolated, not only by virtue of its location west of the Appalachians, but also by the fact that the Mississippi River was completely controlled by Spain, which disallowed all commercial traffic. Through a combination of bravado, flattery and access to credit, Wilkinson was able to break this embargo and make key contacts with Spanish administrators in St. Louis, Natchez and New Orleans.

Kentucky's status at the time was up for grabs. Deemed a part of Virginia, settlers were split as to whether to pursue statehood, independence or even annexation to Spanish America (the borders of the various territories were somewhat liquid). Wilkinson sold himself to his Spanish handlers as someone who could bring the territory of Kentucky under their control. That he was able to parley this virtual monopoly in Mississippi commercial traffic and political connection to near bankruptcy speaks volumes to his poor business skills.

Wilkinson returned to service in the United States Army, quickly becoming commanding General of a largely scaled down domestic force. Wilkinson's connections among the Spanish were not terminated however. For the next 20 years, Wilkinson continued to feed information and intelligence to his Spanish contacts in a stunning display of treachery (actually exposing the Lewis and Clark expedition to extermination). Most surprisingly, Wilkinson's actions were largely known to his superiors, who nevertheless continued to entrust him with command of the military, despite rapidly rising tensions along the U.S.-Mexican border.

Finally, Wilkinson faced the ultimate choice. In the face of Aaron Burr's plan to carve an independent nation from Mexican holdings in the area of what is now Texas, Wilkinson had the means (command of American forces in the region) to bring Burr's plans to fruition. Instead, Wilkinson mobilized his forces in defense of New Orleans and, according to many historians, saved the Republic. His nefarious activities and close relations with Burr resulted in a swirl of controversies and recriminations which consumed the balance of his life.

While this is undoubtedly a tale worth telling, not the least reason of which is its surprising originality, the story drags at times and falls just short of what could have been an outstanding history.

What if the top-ranking general of the United States Army was actually a traitor in the employ of our country's greatest enemy? Well, from 1797 through 1812, he was! Documents found in Havana after the Spanish-American War prove that James Wilkinson, commanding general of the U.S. Army during those turbulent years when America was expanding westward into Spanish territory, was in fact a paid agent of the Spanish Crown, and his story is well-documented and engagingly told in Andro Linklater's "An Artist in Treason".

Wilkinson is one of the most fascinating characters in American history. He was the subject of my Master's Thesis and at one time I planned on writing a biography of Wilkinson myself. Unfortunately, the man was so good at covering his tracks that it is difficult to come up with any hard evidence about many of his nefarious activities, and one can only speculate about all the fascinating things Wilkinson MIGHT have done--such as his role in the capture of Washington's second-in-command, General Charles Lee, during the Revolution, and the death of Meriwether Lewis in 1809. (I eventually opted for an approach where speculation would not be a liability but an asset, and decided to write a series of `Flashman'-type novels purporting culled from Wilkinson's secret memoirs, the first of which will be published in September of 2010). Mr. Linklater wisely avoids the pitfalls inherent in such speculation when writing a scholarly biography, and he concentrates on the things Wilkinson was known to have done. His research, I can say with some authority, is impeccable, and his writing style is accessible to the casual reader as well as the professional historian. I differ with him on a few points--he thinks Wilkinson was sincere in his efforts on behalf of the Spanish (at least at first), while I believe Wilkinson was simply playing them for suckers, selling them useless information at the same time that he and Burr were conspiring to seize Mexico and set themselves up as kings--but after reading Mr. Linklater's arguments, I'm not so sure that he isn't right and I'm wrong.

If you have any interest in our nation's early history, you should really enjoy this book. It explores a number of issues and events that are rarely covered in other histories of the period, and I suspect will be a real eye-opener even to some historians of the era. If Mr. Linklater has not written the definitive biography of this fascinating figure, it is only because so much about Wilkinson remains unknown that a definitive biography can never be written.

This is a valuable view of our early American history, although not an easy read. It's value lies in understanding the very human flaws in powerful people, then and now. Reference is strong via the numerous quotations from letters, but the language of the time, especially the flowery and cunning manner in which General Wilkinson wrote, requires thoughtful reading.

Prior to Andro Linklater's book on James Wilkinson, I had found that the scholarship on the "Founding Fathers" generation lacking when it came to the story of James Wilkinson. Wilkinson received short shrift or fell through the cracks of the newer progeny of works on the "Founding Fathers" generation (see, e.g. Joseph Ellis' Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation, Joseph Ellis' American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson; Joseph Ellis' His Excellency: George Washington, Ron Chernow's Alexander Hamilton; Thomas Fleming's Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America)

Thankfully, Andro Linklater admirably stepped into the void and has given us :An Artist in Treason." Linkater's book is not a true biography since it spends very little time on Wilkinson's private life. Rather, it can be said that the book is a biography of Wilkinson's amibition and duplicity. Linkalater admirably captures the changing tides of loyalty in the New Republic. It must be remembered that National loylaty had not become the fixed star it would be after the Civil War; there was the War for Independence in which the American colonists allied themselves with France against Grean Britain; there was the division of citizens between Federalists who favored the Constitituion of 1787 and the Anti-Federalists who opposed it; there was the uncertainty of the western settlers who were undecided as to whether their future lay with the newly formed United States, with Spain, Great Britain, France, or in some other national configuration; and there was the emergence of political parties. All of these events made national loylaty a fluid concept.

Linklater's work also artfully builds up the drama leading to the climax of Burr's attempted grab for power and Wilkinson's ultimate choice of the United States over Spain. Linklater's work is well-documented and balanced and a contribution to the scholarship of that period.