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The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas In Europe

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_The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas in Europe_ by Leon Poliakov is a fascinating account of the development of the Aryan myth and European racial ideology. While the author is biased by a Freudian perspective, his research is nevertheless very good and provides much insight into the development of racialist and nationalist ideology. This book is divided into two sections: "Early Myths of Origin", focusing on the Aryan myth within individual European nations, and "The Myth of Aryan Origins", focusing on the Aryan myth as it developed from the medieval period through the Enlightenment and into the Twentieth century. The Aryan myth proved to be particularly disastrous for European history given the horrors inflicted by the Nazi and Fascist regimes; however, its true nature has been perhaps perverted. It is also interesting to note the contrast between the earlier biblical mythology surrounding the origins of the races and the later Darwinistic usurpation of that mythology as the Aryan myth came to be perverted by Hitler and his Nazi cronies.

The first section of this book deals with "The Myth of Aryan Origins". Here, a discussion of various European countries is related and the role that racial myths played in their foundations and the subsequent nationalisms that arose from them. Of particular interest, is the role that genealogy played in the development of racial origins for the various aristocracies and monarchies of European nations. In particular, the Gothic race, Celts, Teutons, and various Germanic races came to play prominent roles in the development of racial myth as the superior race. The author begins with a discussion of Spain and the Gothic myth. Here, the author notes the role of racial myth (the myth of Gothic origins) in the conflict between Old Christians and the conversos (Muslim converts) in the time of the Inquisition. Following this discussion of Spain, the author turns his attention to France. Here, the role of the Gauls and the Celts is explained as the mythical origins of French nationalism. The author next turns his attention to England, noting the role of the Celts and Normans. Again the Gothic myth of origins is to play a primary part. In addition, the English often believed themselves to be descended from a lost tribe of Israel and therefore related to the Hebrews directly. Following this the author turns his attention to Italy. Again he notes the importance of racial myth, particularly as it influenced the development of Catholicism, the role of the papacy, and the conflict between Guelph and Ghibelline. Next, the author turns his attention to Germany. Again the role of the early Germanic tribes (as mentioned by Tacitus) is considered, as well as the German mythology developed by Reformers such as Luther. Following this the author turns his attention to Russia. Again the role of race played an important part in the development of tsarist Russia. Indeed, many of the tsars claimed for themselves Germanic ancestry (often claiming descent from the Scandinavian Rurik) against the common Russian peasant. In addition to these racial myths, various biblical myths played an important part in the history of these nations and the nationalism that developed from them. In particular, it must be noted that frequently the Europeans regarded themselves as descendents of Japheth, the Asians descendents of Shem, and the Africans descendents of Ham (the sons of Noah). In the medieval feudal system, Japheth was regarded as the ancestor of the nobility, Shem as the ancestor of the clerks, and Ham as the ancestor of the serfs. This is particularly interesting when it is noted that biblically the descendents of Ham were regarded as occupying the role of slaves having a curse placed upon them in the book of Genesis. The author also mentions an early apocryphal anti-Jewish Arab Gospel in which the "children of Israel" are regarded as lower than Africans. This discussion provides the context for the author's subsequent discussion of racial mythology as it came to play itself out in the period of the Enlightenment.

Following this first section, the author next turns his attention to "The Myth of Aryan Origins", focusing on the development of the Aryan myth from the time of the middle ages (where it was based primarily on biblical mythology) to the time of the Enlightenment and into the modern era (where the racial myth came to rest more and more on scientific justification). To begin this discussion, the author turns first to the "antecedents" of the Aryan myth, mentioning the pre-Adamite theory. According to this theory, not all men were descended from the common ancestor Adam and there were men before Adam. In particular, the role of the Marranos (crypto-Jewish converts to Catholicism who retained their Jewishness) is emphasized in their belief that the Jews constituted a superior race descended from Adam. From this the author turns his attention to the importance of the discovery of the New World, noting the role of the American Indians (the "savages") and the various theories proposed by Europeans concerning their humanity, as well as the role of blacks. In particular, the author contrasts the idea of the "Noble Savage" advanced by certain philosophers and theologians of the time with other ideas of the "savages" that proliferated then. Following this the author turns his attention to the Enlightenment proper, noting the development of various "utopias of reason". In the anthropology of the Enlightenment, the author contrasts the role of less extreme racial theories (that of the monogenists, which were not regarded as heretical by observing Christians) with more extreme racial theories (that of the polygenists, which were frequently regarded as being heretical). The author shows the development of the Aryan myth among the Enlightenment philosophers, mentioning for example Voltaire and Rousseau but also the development of this myth within German idealistic and romantic philosophy, mentioning Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Schelling, and Schlegel. The author shows how the Aryan myth came to turn more and more towards an Indo-Germanic or Indian origin (for example in the works of Schlegel and Max Muller) after earlier biblical theories were displaced. The author also mentions the development of the Aryan myth in such surprising places as the egoistic political philosophy of Max Stirner and the various racist doctrines of Marx and Engels (certainly an eye-opener!). In addition, the author mentions the role of anti-Semitism in the formation of the Aryan myth among such anti-Christian theorists as Ernst Renan and others who cast doubt on the historical Jesus. The author also turns his attention to the theories of such individuals as the elitist Gobineau. As the myth of the Aryan race developed, the early Christian racial beliefs came to be more and more replaced by quasi-scientific justifications for racial science. Thus, we see in the development of Darwinism among such thinkers as Haeckel, Spencer, and Darwin, an underlying racial doctrine. The author also provides an examination of much of the underpinnings of early eugenics theories (mentioning for example the Nordic League, but also noting such early opponents to eugenics as Chesterton). Finally, the author turns his attention to the sort of Aryanism that eventually made its way into the Nazi regime. He notes for example the beliefs of the composer Richard Wagner and the break with Nietzsche. He also notes the development of the Aryan myth among those who opted for an "Aryan Christ" freed from Semitic origins and the role of Aryan doctrines in the churches. He also notes such notorious Aryan philosophers as Chamberlain and finally Rosenberg. The author also notes the role of the Aryan myth in psychoanalysis mentioning the contrast between Freudian (Semitic) theories and Jungian (Aryan) theories. Finally, the author turns his attention to the role of several Jewish intellectuals such as Rathenau and Weininger (praised by Hitler as the only Jew worthy to live) who saw for themselves a role in the Aryan mythos.

This book provides a fascinating glimpse at the role of myths in the development of nationalisms. In particular, we see how racial mythology (the myth of Aryan origins) was exploited by opportunists in the Twentieth century to create totalitarian regimes. The book is encyclopedic in scope and is sure to provide the definitive account, tracing the development of Aryan mythology in European history.