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Caesar: Politician and Statesman

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In writing a Web biography of Julius Caesar, I read dozens of books trying to explain this chameleon man, probably the most famous Roman who ever lived. And after it all, I came back to this as my firm choice as THE book to read if you want a comprehensive, scholarly, yet still fascinating excavation of everything we truly know about Caesar.

Gelzer's book is a classic on everyone's list. First published in German in 1921, Gelzer labored and rewrote it over half a century, reading and rethinking all the time. It was finally translated into English in the 1960's. As he modestly concludes, "Much has been written about Caesar. The appearance of despotic rulers [Stalin, Hitler] of quite a different stamp has not always been favourable to the judgment passed on him. A fresh study of the sources has, on the whole, convinced me of the correctness of my interpretation." Gelzer makes those sources lucid, explaining contradictions, noting where a history is political rather than factual, smoothing out inconsistencies and providing copious notes for the reader who wants to learn more. There is a clarity and precision to his writing that is oddly restful, yet continually interesting, for which we must thank the readable translation by Peter Needham.

In recent years, it has become fashionable to dismiss Caesar as a power-hungry megalomaniac, to psychoanlyze him, to portray him from every vantage point; but no one can deny his genius. Gelzer, unlike some modern biographers of Caesar, never strays from the facts; his thoughtful and precise narrative of every scintilla of truth remaining to us, takes you as close to the man as you are ever likely to get. About the true nature of Julius Caesar, every thinking reader must make up his own mind. Gelzer will give you the best tools to do so, while painting an unforgettable portrait of the failing Roman Republic.

If you are interested in the final years of the Roman Republic
or Julius Caesar, this book is for you. I first read Anthony
Everitt's Cicero (which I liked) and it's brief discussions of
Caesar were enough to pique my interest in further study of Caesar.
After researching a bit, Gelzer's biography seemed to be the most
lauded- and having read it- rightly so.

The level of detail in this book is incredible. There are
hundreds of footnotes indicating sources and often containing
quotes in their original language which is as often Greek as it
is Latin. Gelzer really shows us the genius and abilities of
this most fascinating man- perhaps the boldest, most brilliant
military commander in history- not to mention an equally talented
politician! Caesar deserves our attention.

If you can handle great detail and really want to know Caesar and his times, you will like this book.

Do not buy this book if you're looking for gossip about Caesar's [love] life or his romance with Cleopatra. You're not going to find any dirt or gossip about his private life; just a very sober,well argued and researched political biography. Along the way you'll hopefully come to appreciate just how remarkable Caesar's accomplishments were, given the obstacles he had to overcome along the way. Among the points which Gelzer makes is how completely different the ancient Roman Republic was compared to our modern ideas of a democratic republic. In fact, it was nothing more than an oligarchy where leadership changed hands among a rich,and ambitious elite. By Caesar's time this political system was on its last legs and it was inevitable that a general leading an army was going to overthrow the whole system at some point. While it's true that Octavian(Augustus)deserves credit for creating the system of government which ruled the empire he inherited,it's also true that he wouldn't have been able to do this had Caesar not paved the way before him. Add to this the fact that he was able to do just about anything better than any of his contemporaries and you begin to see why has continued to remain such a fascinating (and controversial)figure down through history.

Gelzer produced a fantastic work with this seminal masterpiece. This is scholarship and historical analysis of the very highest order - ranks alongside Theodor Mommsen.

I've read no other work that measures up to Gelzer's biography of Rome's greatest citizen. His inspirational definition of what it is to be a politician versus that of Statesmanship is forever etched in my mind.

Those seeking contemporary pseudo-psychology, 'opinions and soundbites' need to look elsewhere as this is not Plutarch at his most irritating. A perfect counter-balance to the anecdotal and condensed approach of Plutarch.

Definitive and unsurpassed in its authority.

Matthias Gelzer covers the life of Caesar, who I must admit I believe to be the greatest of all historical figures, very well. His insights and his speculations are all well founded as one would expect of a great scholar such as Gelzer.

I read this book as part of a degree course and, although I don't necessarily agree with everything he has to say, all of it is interesting and worthy of, at least, discussion.

I would rate this book far higher than the book on Caesar by Christian Meier, but Meier's book has some interesting points that Gelzer does not. Overall though, for a book on the life of Caesar, Gelzer is the best to be found at the moment.

I've read every biography of Caesar I can find, but Gelzer's is by far the best. Gelzer is careful in his scholarship and restrained in his writing style, but the book is nevertheless an utterly fascinating account of a multi-faceted genius of inexhaustable energy, who was clearly one of the most formidible men of all time.

I read this book for a graduate course in Roman history.

Pompey's apex of power and glory was in 61 BCE, when he returned to Rome to receive his third triumph after his victories in the Middle East, brought new territory and treasure to Rome. With his sterling military reputation and great personal wealth, one would have thought that Pompey could dictate terms to the senate. However, Marcus Porcius Cato 95-46 BCE and his optimate party associates in the Senate, fearful of Pompey's power and ambition and wanting to protect their own political oligarchy, were successful in keeping political power out of his hands. Not only did Cato force Pompey to disband his legions as a condition of his receiving his triumph in Rome, he also embarrassed Pompey by insuring that the Senate did not make any land grants to Pompey's veterans. These actions weakened Pompey's political strength. It kept him from giving out positions of patronage to his supporters and it also lost him favor in the eyes of his veterans. As a result, it also had the effect of making him look like a political weakling when he would later try to stop the ambitious Julius Caesar. Once again, Plutarch observed that although Pompey may have been a great military general, he was no match for others as a political leader. "And well had it been for him had he terminated his life at this date, while he still enjoyed Alexander's fortune, since all his aftertime served only either to bring him prosperity that made him odious, or calamities too great to be retrieved."

While Cato and the Senate were going out of their way to quench Pompey's fiery ambitions, Julius Caesar started to make his grab for power over Rome. Matthias Gelzer's biography of Julius Caesar is an excellent in-depth analysis of Caesar's life. Caesar hailed from one of the minor and less politically active patrician families. Although a senator's son, Caesar's standing in society was first improved by the fact that Marius became his uncle by marriage. Secondly, to further his own political career he married Cornelia, the daughter of the Roman consul Cinna. In 80 BCE Julius Caesar embarked on a military career and made his mark quickly as an able military commander. Gelzer observed that early in Caesar's life he already mastered "how to exploit his talents to the full...he was already a respected orator and, a dashing officer that had shown bravery." Gelzer pointed out that there were two dominant political parties in Rome at the time. The optimates were dominated by the conservatives who worked to protect the prestige of the senate, the rich, and the status quo of Rome. The populares party that Caesar belonged to, played to the lower class multitudes of Rome in deed and word.

By 59 BCE Caesar had made several moves in his life which furthered his political career and gained him his first consulship of Rome. Caesar worked hard at getting the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus 115-53 BCE, to reconcile their differences. Crassus was a businessman and the richest man in Rome. Caesar further allied himself politically with Pompey by giving his daughter, Julia, some thirty years Pompey's junior, in marriage to him. All three men banded together in a triumvirate to wrest power from the optimates in the senate. Their vehicle for doing this was to bring about a new agrarian law over the strenuous opposition of the optimate senators. The agrarian law that Caesar introduced as counsel served several purposes. It was helpful in relieving the overcrowded conditions in Rome by allowing landless people the ability to settle on uncultivated land in Italy. In addition, some of this land would also be used to finally reward Pompey's veterans that had been loyal to him. Of course, it would be extremely popular with the multitude of Roman citizens who owned little if any property. In order to insure the passage of the bill, Pompey put the word out to his veterans to come to Rome where they made their presence known by running off the opposition senators out of the forum while Caesar was advocating for the passage of the bill in a speech to the people. Gelzer astutely points out "Caesar's...agrarian laws show him as a politician with an outstanding talent for dealing with social problems." The nasty political fight between Caesar and the optimates earned him some serious political enemies. However, with the help in the Senate from his political allies the populares and from Pompey, Caesar was appointed a proconsul of the province of Cisalpine Gaul. This province was a part of northern Italy, which he was to rule for five years. Soon there after, the governor of Gaul, a territory beyond the Alps, died and this territory was added to Caesar's territory. Though the future looked bright for Rome in 59 BCE, the greed and distrust between the two strongest military leaders of the triumvirate would eventually cause Pompey and Caesar to become enemies and turn on each other in their quest for ultimate power in Rome.

Most historians observed that Caesar's new appointments gave him command of four legions, the ability to win prestige in battle, and to acquire much booty during his conquest of Gaul. Few in Rome, most importantly Pompey, could have imagined that "by the brilliance of his generalship, and the swiftness and totality of his conquests...this loquacious and unprincipled politician could achieve so much." Caesar spent nine years in Gaul, and by 50 BCE, his army grew in number to twelve legions. Caesar's army was made up of many battle hardened professionals. In addition, Caesar's successes made it easy for him to gain new volunteers to swell his ranks. Caesar's soldiers and many of his officers were undoubtedly motivated by money and pride, which kept them loyal to Caesar. These accomplishments served to secure Caesar's unrivaled political standing. It was Caesar's loyalty from the army coupled with the treasure necessary to buy favor of the Roman citizenry that gave him the political power necessary to conquer Rome. One can also see from Caesar's actions that he learned well from his uncle Marius on how to raise an army and keep its loyalty. These lessons were also learned by his successor Octavian. However, Caesar's success in conquering Rome would not happen without fighting a bitter Civil War against the optimates in the Senate who were allied with Pompey.

Gelzer meticulously wrote about the events which led to the ensuing Civil War. In 51 BCE, the optimates now allied with Pompey in the Senate, tried to have Caesar recalled to Rome so that they could put him on trial for misconduct. Caesar knew that he needed to hold onto his position in Gaul and run in abstentia for consul in 49 BCE, so that he could have a political office to protect him from prosecution by his enemies. Though much political bargaining went on between Caesar, Pompey and the Senate, by 49 BCE the Senate voted to deliver Caesar an ultimatum. "Caesar was to dismiss his army by a fixed date on pain of being regarded a public enemy." If Caesar followed the dictates of the Senate, he would have been a private citizen for six months and open to his enemies for reprisal. Thus on January 10, 49 BCE, Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon River, even though it was against ancient Roman law. This action automatically made Julius Caesar an enemy of the state and precipitated a bloody Civil War that changed the course of Roman history. Upon hearing the news of Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon, Pompey ordered all senators and citizens who considered themselves patriots of Rome to flee the city. Pompey was overconfident that Caesar would not enter Rome and told his followers he would easily raise the legions necessary to stop Caesar. Pompey was wrong on both counts. Caesar felt he had no choice in his actions, and throughout the Civil War he went out of his way to protect both the property and the honor of all the people who he captured. In addition, Caesar pled his case, explaining the untenable circumstances in which Pompey and the Senate placed him, and implored all of his former enemies to join his side in the Civil War. Caesar was quite successful in this endeavor. While Caesar was chasing Pompey to Brundisium, he spent over a week in Rome setting up a government and instituting legislation that restored economic security to the country. In the mean time, Pompey took his army to Brundisium and narrowly escaped Caesar's advancing army by ship to the Greek peninsula. By 48 BCE, the deciding battle was fought in Pharsalus, with Pompey's army outnumbering Caesar's by two to one. However, Pompey's mainly inexperienced soldiers were no match for Caesar's battle tested soldiers. Pompey lost the battle and fled by sea to Egypt where he was later murdered, much to Caesar's chagrin. Caesar went on to conquer Egypt and installed Cleopatra as his regent on the throne, and then returned to Rome in triumph. The Senate showered Caesar with all manner of honors heretofore never bestowed on any other man of Rome. In addition, the Senate made him Dictator for ten years. He accepted the honors and new powers while repeatedly remarking that he would work towards reconciliation with his former enemies and would not become a despot. "He had only fought the Civil War to save himself from dishonour. His victorious army had done battle to protect its rights and Caesar's dignity."

Gelzer wrote admiringly on how quickly Caesar went to work instituting new reforms in order to fix the decades of social and political problems of the Roman Empire that the Republic could not cope with while under the Senate. In addition, Caesar traveled to all of the provinces in the Empire, which showed the people that he cared about their welfare, and made them more loyal to him. Militarily Caesar discharged all of his veteran legions except one, making sure that each of the soldiers received land in Italy and southern France. This insured that they would stay loyal to Caesar personally. From his very able military staff, Caesar picked men to fill ministerial positions throughout the empire, which also strengthened his hand politically. It is a pity that Caesar had only two years to institute a Pax Romana before he was brutally assassinated. However, what social, political, and military reforms Caesar started would come to fruition under Caesar Augustus, his heir and Rome's ruler for forty-five years.

Recommended reading for those interested in Roman history, military history.

If you're looking for an unbiased, brilliant account of Gaius Julius Caesar's life then look no further; you've found it!

However, I do have a warning. This book is of the "old-school" variety. It is a mass of facts and is pretty dry reading for the most part. Its not like the more recent historybooks I'm used to reading (I'm 21). However, one can't help be sucked in to the saga of Caesar and the fall of the republic.

This is not only a dry book; it is a wise book as well. It is a book that should be read for the sake of the knowledge it contains even if it is not as polished as Rubicon or The Assassination of Julius Caesar.

I read this book for a graduate course in Roman history.

Pompey's apex of power and glory was in 61 BCE, when he returned to Rome to receive his third triumph after his victories in the Middle East, brought new territory and treasure to Rome. With his sterling military reputation and great personal wealth, one would have thought that Pompey could dictate terms to the senate. However, Marcus Porcius Cato 95-46 BCE and his optimate party associates in the Senate, fearful of Pompey's power and ambition and wanting to protect their own political oligarchy, were successful in keeping political power out of his hands. Not only did Cato force Pompey to disband his legions as a condition of his receiving his triumph in Rome, he also embarrassed Pompey by insuring that the Senate did not make any land grants to Pompey's veterans. These actions weakened Pompey's political strength. It kept him from giving out positions of patronage to his supporters and it also lost him favor in the eyes of his veterans. As a result, it also had the effect of making him look like a political weakling when he would later try to stop the ambitious Julius Caesar. Once again, Plutarch observed that although Pompey may have been a great military general, he was no match for others as a political leader. "And well had it been for him had he terminated his life at this date, while he still enjoyed Alexander's fortune, since all his aftertime served only either to bring him prosperity that made him odious, or calamities too great to be retrieved."

While Cato and the Senate were going out of their way to quench Pompey's fiery ambitions, Julius Caesar started to make his grab for power over Rome. Matthias Gelzer's biography of Julius Caesar is an excellent in-depth analysis of Caesar's life. Caesar hailed from one of the minor and less politically active patrician families. Although a senator's son, Caesar's standing in society was first improved by the fact that Marius became his uncle by marriage. Secondly, to further his own political career he married Cornelia, the daughter of the Roman consul Cinna. In 80 BCE Julius Caesar embarked on a military career and made his mark quickly as an able military commander. Gelzer observed that early in Caesar's life he already mastered "how to exploit his talents to the full...he was already a respected orator and, a dashing officer that had shown bravery." Gelzer pointed out that there were two dominant political parties in Rome at the time. The optimates were dominated by the conservatives who worked to protect the prestige of the senate, the rich, and the status quo of Rome. The populares party that Caesar belonged to, played to the lower class multitudes of Rome in deed and word.

By 59 BCE Caesar had made several moves in his life which furthered his political career and gained him his first consulship of Rome. Caesar worked hard at getting the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus 115-53 BCE, to reconcile their differences. Crassus was a businessman and the richest man in Rome. Caesar further allied himself politically with Pompey by giving his daughter, Julia, some thirty years Pompey's junior, in marriage to him. All three men banded together in a triumvirate to wrest power from the optimates in the senate. Their vehicle for doing this was to bring about a new agrarian law over the strenuous opposition of the optimate senators. The agrarian law that Caesar introduced as counsel served several purposes. It was helpful in relieving the overcrowded conditions in Rome by allowing landless people the ability to settle on uncultivated land in Italy. In addition, some of this land would also be used to finally reward Pompey's veterans that had been loyal to him. Of course, it would be extremely popular with the multitude of Roman citizens who owned little if any property. In order to insure the passage of the bill, Pompey put the word out to his veterans to come to Rome where they made their presence known by running off the opposition senators out of the forum while Caesar was advocating for the passage of the bill in a speech to the people. Gelzer astutely points out "Caesar's...agrarian laws show him as a politician with an outstanding talent for dealing with social problems." The nasty political fight between Caesar and the optimates earned him some serious political enemies. However, with the help in the Senate from his political allies the populares and from Pompey, Caesar was appointed a proconsul of the province of Cisalpine Gaul. This province was a part of northern Italy, which he was to rule for five years. Soon there after, the governor of Gaul, a territory beyond the Alps, died and this territory was added to Caesar's territory. Though the future looked bright for Rome in 59 BCE, the greed and distrust between the two strongest military leaders of the triumvirate would eventually cause Pompey and Caesar to become enemies and turn on each other in their quest for ultimate power in Rome.

Most historians observed that Caesar's new appointments gave him command of four legions, the ability to win prestige in battle, and to acquire much booty during his conquest of Gaul. Few in Rome, most importantly Pompey, could have imagined that "by the brilliance of his generalship, and the swiftness and totality of his conquests...this loquacious and unprincipled politician could achieve so much." Caesar spent nine years in Gaul, and by 50 BCE, his army grew in number to twelve legions. Caesar's army was made up of many battle hardened professionals. In addition, Caesar's successes made it easy for him to gain new volunteers to swell his ranks. Caesar's soldiers and many of his officers were undoubtedly motivated by money and pride, which kept them loyal to Caesar. These accomplishments served to secure Caesar's unrivaled political standing. It was Caesar's loyalty from the army coupled with the treasure necessary to buy favor of the Roman citizenry that gave him the political power necessary to conquer Rome. One can also see from Caesar's actions that he learned well from his uncle Marius on how to raise an army and keep its loyalty. These lessons were also learned by his successor Octavian. However, Caesar's success in conquering Rome would not happen without fighting a bitter Civil War against the optimates in the Senate who were allied with Pompey.

Gelzer meticulously wrote about the events which led to the ensuing Civil War. In 51 BCE, the optimates now allied with Pompey in the Senate, tried to have Caesar recalled to Rome so that they could put him on trial for misconduct. Caesar knew that he needed to hold onto his position in Gaul and run in abstentia for consul in 49 BCE, so that he could have a political office to protect him from prosecution by his enemies. Though much political bargaining went on between Caesar, Pompey and the Senate, by 49 BCE the Senate voted to deliver Caesar an ultimatum. "Caesar was to dismiss his army by a fixed date on pain of being regarded a public enemy." If Caesar followed the dictates of the Senate, he would have been a private citizen for six months and open to his enemies for reprisal. Thus on January 10, 49 BCE, Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon River, even though it was against ancient Roman law. This action automatically made Julius Caesar an enemy of the state and precipitated a bloody Civil War that changed the course of Roman history. Upon hearing the news of Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon, Pompey ordered all senators and citizens who considered themselves patriots of Rome to flee the city. Pompey was overconfident that Caesar would not enter Rome and told his followers he would easily raise the legions necessary to stop Caesar. Pompey was wrong on both counts. Caesar felt he had no choice in his actions, and throughout the Civil War he went out of his way to protect both the property and the honor of all the people who he captured. In addition, Caesar pled his case, explaining the untenable circumstances in which Pompey and the Senate placed him, and implored all of his former enemies to join his side in the Civil War. Caesar was quite successful in this endeavor. While Caesar was chasing Pompey to Brundisium, he spent over a week in Rome setting up a government and instituting legislation that restored economic security to the country. In the mean time, Pompey took his army to Brundisium and narrowly escaped Caesar's advancing army by ship to the Greek peninsula. By 48 BCE, the deciding battle was fought in Pharsalus, with Pompey's army outnumbering Caesar's by two to one. However, Pompey's mainly inexperienced soldiers were no match for Caesar's battle tested soldiers. Pompey lost the battle and fled by sea to Egypt where he was later murdered, much to Caesar's chagrin. Caesar went on to conquer Egypt and installed Cleopatra as his regent on the throne, and then returned to Rome in triumph. The Senate showered Caesar with all manner of honors heretofore never bestowed on any other man of Rome. In addition, the Senate made him Dictator for ten years. He accepted the honors and new powers while repeatedly remarking that he would work towards reconciliation with his former enemies and would not become a despot. "He had only fought the Civil War to save himself from dishonour. His victorious army had done battle to protect its rights and Caesar's dignity."

Gelzer wrote admiringly on how quickly Caesar went to work instituting new reforms in order to fix the decades of social and political problems of the Roman Empire that the Republic could not cope with while under the Senate. In addition, Caesar traveled to all of the provinces in the Empire, which showed the people that he cared about their welfare, and made them more loyal to him. Militarily Caesar discharged all of his veteran legions except one, making sure that each of the soldiers received land in Italy and southern France. This insured that they would stay loyal to Caesar personally. From his very able military staff, Caesar picked men to fill ministerial positions throughout the empire, which also strengthened his hand politically. It is a pity that Caesar had only two years to institute a Pax Romana before he was brutally assassinated. However, what social, political, and military reforms Caesar started would come to fruition under Caesar Augustus, his heir and Rome's ruler for forty-five years.

Recommended reading for those interested in Roman history, military history.

I read this book for a graduate course in Roman history.

Pompey's apex of power and glory was in 61 BCE, when he returned to Rome to receive his third triumph after his victories in the Middle East, brought new territory and treasure to Rome. With his sterling military reputation and great personal wealth, one would have thought that Pompey could dictate terms to the senate. However, Marcus Porcius Cato 95-46 BCE and his optimate party associates in the Senate, fearful of Pompey's power and ambition and wanting to protect their own political oligarchy, were successful in keeping political power out of his hands. Not only did Cato force Pompey to disband his legions as a condition of his receiving his triumph in Rome, he also embarrassed Pompey by insuring that the Senate did not make any land grants to Pompey's veterans. These actions weakened Pompey's political strength. It kept him from giving out positions of patronage to his supporters and it also lost him favor in the eyes of his veterans. As a result, it also had the effect of making him look like a political weakling when he would later try to stop the ambitious Julius Caesar. Once again, Plutarch observed that although Pompey may have been a great military general, he was no match for others as a political leader. "And well had it been for him had he terminated his life at this date, while he still enjoyed Alexander's fortune, since all his aftertime served only either to bring him prosperity that made him odious, or calamities too great to be retrieved."

While Cato and the Senate were going out of their way to quench Pompey's fiery ambitions, Julius Caesar started to make his grab for power over Rome. Matthias Gelzer's biography of Julius Caesar is an excellent in-depth analysis of Caesar's life. Caesar hailed from one of the minor and less politically active patrician families. Although a senator's son, Caesar's standing in society was first improved by the fact that Marius became his uncle by marriage. Secondly, to further his own political career he married Cornelia, the daughter of the Roman consul Cinna. In 80 BCE Julius Caesar embarked on a military career and made his mark quickly as an able military commander. Gelzer observed that early in Caesar's life he already mastered "how to exploit his talents to the full...he was already a respected orator and, a dashing officer that had shown bravery." Gelzer pointed out that there were two dominant political parties in Rome at the time. The optimates were dominated by the conservatives who worked to protect the prestige of the senate, the rich, and the status quo of Rome. The populares party that Caesar belonged to, played to the lower class multitudes of Rome in deed and word.

By 59 BCE Caesar had made several moves in his life which furthered his political career and gained him his first consulship of Rome. Caesar worked hard at getting the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus 115-53 BCE, to reconcile their differences. Crassus was a businessman and the richest man in Rome. Caesar further allied himself politically with Pompey by giving his daughter, Julia, some thirty years Pompey's junior, in marriage to him. All three men banded together in a triumvirate to wrest power from the optimates in the senate. Their vehicle for doing this was to bring about a new agrarian law over the strenuous opposition of the optimate senators. The agrarian law that Caesar introduced as counsel served several purposes. It was helpful in relieving the overcrowded conditions in Rome by allowing landless people the ability to settle on uncultivated land in Italy. In addition, some of this land would also be used to finally reward Pompey's veterans that had been loyal to him. Of course, it would be extremely popular with the multitude of Roman citizens who owned little if any property. In order to insure the passage of the bill, Pompey put the word out to his veterans to come to Rome where they made their presence known by running off the opposition senators out of the forum while Caesar was advocating for the passage of the bill in a speech to the people. Gelzer astutely points out "Caesar's...agrarian laws show him as a politician with an outstanding talent for dealing with social problems." The nasty political fight between Caesar and the optimates earned him some serious political enemies. However, with the help in the Senate from his political allies the populares and from Pompey, Caesar was appointed a proconsul of the province of Cisalpine Gaul. This province was a part of northern Italy, which he was to rule for five years. Soon there after, the governor of Gaul, a territory beyond the Alps, died and this territory was added to Caesar's territory. Though the future looked bright for Rome in 59 BCE, the greed and distrust between the two strongest military leaders of the triumvirate would eventually cause Pompey and Caesar to become enemies and turn on each other in their quest for ultimate power in Rome.

Most historians observed that Caesar's new appointments gave him command of four legions, the ability to win prestige in battle, and to acquire much booty during his conquest of Gaul. Few in Rome, most importantly Pompey, could have imagined that "by the brilliance of his generalship, and the swiftness and totality of his conquests...this loquacious and unprincipled politician could achieve so much." Caesar spent nine years in Gaul, and by 50 BCE, his army grew in number to twelve legions. Caesar's army was made up of many battle hardened professionals. In addition, Caesar's successes made it easy for him to gain new volunteers to swell his ranks. Caesar's soldiers and many of his officers were undoubtedly motivated by money and pride, which kept them loyal to Caesar. These accomplishments served to secure Caesar's unrivaled political standing. It was Caesar's loyalty from the army coupled with the treasure necessary to buy favor of the Roman citizenry that gave him the political power necessary to conquer Rome. One can also see from Caesar's actions that he learned well from his uncle Marius on how to raise an army and keep its loyalty. These lessons were also learned by his successor Octavian. However, Caesar's success in conquering Rome would not happen without fighting a bitter Civil War against the optimates in the Senate who were allied with Pompey.

Gelzer meticulously wrote about the events which led to the ensuing Civil War. In 51 BCE, the optimates now allied with Pompey in the Senate, tried to have Caesar recalled to Rome so that they could put him on trial for misconduct. Caesar knew that he needed to hold onto his position in Gaul and run in abstentia for consul in 49 BCE, so that he could have a political office to protect him from prosecution by his enemies. Though much political bargaining went on between Caesar, Pompey and the Senate, by 49 BCE the Senate voted to deliver Caesar an ultimatum. "Caesar was to dismiss his army by a fixed date on pain of being regarded a public enemy." If Caesar followed the dictates of the Senate, he would have been a private citizen for six months and open to his enemies for reprisal. Thus on January 10, 49 BCE, Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon River, even though it was against ancient Roman law. This action automatically made Julius Caesar an enemy of the state and precipitated a bloody Civil War that changed the course of Roman history. Upon hearing the news of Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon, Pompey ordered all senators and citizens who considered themselves patriots of Rome to flee the city. Pompey was overconfident that Caesar would not enter Rome and told his followers he would easily raise the legions necessary to stop Caesar. Pompey was wrong on both counts. Caesar felt he had no choice in his actions, and throughout the Civil War he went out of his way to protect both the property and the honor of all the people who he captured. In addition, Caesar pled his case, explaining the untenable circumstances in which Pompey and the Senate placed him, and implored all of his former enemies to join his side in the Civil War. Caesar was quite successful in this endeavor. While Caesar was chasing Pompey to Brundisium, he spent over a week in Rome setting up a government and instituting legislation that restored economic security to the country. In the mean time, Pompey took his army to Brundisium and narrowly escaped Caesar's advancing army by ship to the Greek peninsula. By 48 BCE, the deciding battle was fought in Pharsalus, with Pompey's army outnumbering Caesar's by two to one. However, Pompey's mainly inexperienced soldiers were no match for Caesar's battle tested soldiers. Pompey lost the battle and fled by sea to Egypt where he was later murdered, much to Caesar's chagrin. Caesar went on to conquer Egypt and installed Cleopatra as his regent on the throne, and then returned to Rome in triumph. The Senate showered Caesar with all manner of honors heretofore never bestowed on any other man of Rome. In addition, the Senate made him Dictator for ten years. He accepted the honors and new powers while repeatedly remarking that he would work towards reconciliation with his former enemies and would not become a despot. "He had only fought the Civil War to save himself from dishonour. His victorious army had done battle to protect its rights and Caesar's dignity."

Gelzer wrote admiringly on how quickly Caesar went to work instituting new reforms in order to fix the decades of social and political problems of the Roman Empire that the Republic could not cope with while under the Senate. In addition, Caesar traveled to all of the provinces in the Empire, which showed the people that he cared about their welfare, and made them more loyal to him. Militarily Caesar discharged all of his veteran legions except one, making sure that each of the soldiers received land in Italy and southern France. This insured that they would stay loyal to Caesar personally. From his very able military staff, Caesar picked men to fill ministerial positions throughout the empire, which also strengthened his hand politically. It is a pity that Caesar had only two years to institute a Pax Romana before he was brutally assassinated. However, what social, political, and military reforms Caesar started would come to fruition under Caesar Augustus, his heir and Rome's ruler for forty-five years.

Recommended reading for those interested in Roman history, military history.