How did electricity enter everyday life in America? Using Muncie, Indiana - the Lynds' now iconic Middletown - as a touchstone, David Nye explores how electricity seeped into and redefined American culture. With an eye for telling details from archival sources and a broad understanding of cultural and social history, he creates a thought-provoking panorama of a technology fundamental to modern life.Emphasizing the experiences of ordinary men and women rather than the lives of inventors and entrepreneurs, Nye treats electrification as a set of technical possibilities that were selectively adopted to create the streetcar suburb, the amusement park, the "Great White Way," the assembly line, the electrified home, and the industrialized farm. He shows how electricity touched every part of American life, how it became an extension of political ideologies, how it virtually created the image of the modern city, and how it even pervaded colloquial speech, confirming the values of high energy and speed that have become hallmarks of the twentieth century. He also pursues the social meaning of electrification as expressed in utopian ideas and exhibits at world's fairs, and explores the evocation of electrical landscapes in painting, literature, and photography.Electrifying America combines chronology and topicality to examine the major forms of light and power as they came into general use. It shows that in the city electrification promoted a more varied landscape and made possible new art forms and new consumption environments. In the factory, electricity permitted a complete redesign of the size and scale of operations, shifting power away from the shop floor to managers. Electrical appliances redefined domestic work and transformed the landscape of the home, while on the farm electricity laid the foundation for today's agribusiness.David E. Nye teaches American history at the University of Copenhagen. He has published books on Henry Ford and Thomas Edison, as well as Image Worlds, a study of photography and corporate identities at General Electric.
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David Nye casts his bright light on everything from assembly lines to washing machines, from the plummeting price of urban electricity to the usefulness of electric incubators in chicken farming... Mr. Nye succeeds not simply because he knows his technology, but also because be understands the complexity of American culture.... [He] has the breadth of knowledge and the good sense to see the significance in paintings like Edward Hopper's 'Nighthawks'... and to weave such observations into the very armature of his argument that electricity transformed not only American life but the American self "—John R. Stilgoe, New York Times Book Review
About the Author
David E. Nye is Professor of American History at the University of Southern Denmark. The winner of the 2005 Leonardo da Vinci Medal of the Society for the History of Technology, he is the author of America's Assembly Line (MIT Press) and other books.
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David E. Nye's publications focus on technology and American society. He was born in Boston but spent his childhood in rural Pennsylvania. He was educated at Amherst College and the University of Minnesota. He has taught in both the United States and Europe, and he has lectured in every western European country. Author or editor of 20 books, he has won grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Leverhulme Foundation, and national research councils in Denmark and Holland. He has appeared on NOVA, the BBC, and Danish television, and has been a visiting scholar at the universities of Cambridge, Leeds, Harvard, MIT, Warwick, Oviedo, and Notre Dame. In 2005 he received the Leonardo da Vinci Medal, the lifetime achievement award and highest honor of the Society for the History of Technology. His most recent book, America's Assembly Line, will appear with MIT Press in 2013.
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20 of 24 people found the following review helpful
Format:Paperback
Did you know, in the early days of electricity, the power went off at 11:00 pm each night? Or that electricity was billed at a flat rate of $1 per day? Or that most homes had only one or two outlets and a light bulb hanging from a string?
This book is a compendium of both fascinating facts and substantial histories of the development of residential electrical usage in our country.
I love old houses and historical information, and perhaps because of that, I found this book to be a fascinating read. Some parts of it were a wee bit dry, where he delved into some of the more technical aspects of this modern utility, but the majority of the book was a treasure.
After reading this book, and gaining an better understanding of the history of electricity, I'd say, without hesitation, that introducing the modern convenience of electrical current into our homes may be the most significant discovery of the last 500 years.
6 of 6 people found the following review helpful
By Paul Eckler
Format:Paperback|Amazon Verified Purchase
"Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940" by David E. Nye, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1990. This 479 page paperback provides a detailed look at the social implications of electrification in America. Thomas Edison invented the electric incandescent light, but in the process he also invented the electric utility. Just as the integrated circuit led to the personal computer and a host of new technologies, electrification lasted from 1890 to 1930, and for most of that period was the largest consumer of invested capital. (The railroad investment age is given as 1835-1890; the automobile investment age must be 1910+.)
The focus of the book is Muncie, IN, a mid-size American city which has been much studied by social scientists. It is sometimes called "Middletown" in these studies. The book covers street and commercial lighting, streetcars and interurbans, electrification of industry, and rural electrification.
Arc lights were the first artificial electric lights. They were known from 1802, but a power source was problematic until 1877, when Philadelphia's Franklin Institute concluded the Charles F. Brush dynamo (Brush Electric, 1880) was most practical. Orders poured in. An arc lighting system was installed at the courthouse in Wabash, IN, in 1880, four months after Edison demonstrated his electric light at Menlo Park. By 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc light streetlight systems. By 1882, St. Louis had a Brush arc system installed for its Fall Festival. (Brush Electric became part of General Electric in 1891.)
Developers soon realized lighting up the night attracted crowds. Lighting demonstrations were featured at expositions from 1883 (Louisville) to 1904 (St. Louis). Department stores, Marshall Field in Chicago and Jordan Marsh in Boston, were early adopters of arc lighting. Electric light was cleaner than gas, produced no smoke, no odor, no moisture, and no oxygen consumption. In addition, reduced risk allowed lower fire insurance rates.
Edison began sales to the public in 1885. Small DC systems were installed at Mt. Carmel, Sunbury (on the Susquehanna River in central PA), Johnstown, PA, Laramie, WY, Topeka, KS, Jackson, MI, in abt 1885, and in seven major buildings in Chicago. Streetlights, businesses, and upper class homes were early customers. Most urban homes were electrified between 1915 and 1930. In Muncie, electric service was provided from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m., at a flat rate, unmetered. But initially only 100 watts was available, often a single light in the center of the house. Some homes were wired for as little as $10, payable in installments. Fire alarm boxes, burglar alarms, and watchman clocks were available in Muncie by 1889.
The book provides excellent coverage of the streetcar and interurbans. Streetcars grew out of the congestion in major cities caused by dependence on the horse. People tended to live within about 5 mi. of downtown businesses, and the streets were filled with horse carts and coaches. Street railroads using horse-pulled cars were adopted after small steam engines proved unacceptable due to noise, dirt, and they frightened horses. But horse cars did little to relieve congestion.
Thomas Edison undertook development of electric streetcars at Menlo Park with support from Henry Villard in 1880-82. Villard had been a leader in financing the Northern Pacific Railroad, and later was president of Edison General Electric Co. Stephen Field built an early electric streetcar system in Stockbridge, MA. Edison and Field merged their companies to form Electric Railway Co., which had a demonstration line at the Chicago Railway Exposition in 1883. Early systems used a third rail. The advantages of the overhead trolley were recognized by 1885.
Frank Sprague developed an improved DC electric traction motor which used a compressed spring motor mount for isolation from vibrations on the car axle but yet solidly meshed with a drive gear on the axle. His design succeeded in Richmond, VA in 1887, and could manage an 8% grade. His company was acquired by Edison GE. Over 200 cities ordered systems by 1890.
The streetcar was faster than horses, typically 10 mph, and more economical. The need for stable personnel was avoided. The service life of a horse was only four years, and each ate his value in feed each year. Plus diseases could shut down service. Cable car technology was the only competitor, but it was more costly to build and less efficient due to need to pull heavy cable throughout the system. Many street railways were converted from horse to electric streetcars and extended with additional real estate development.
The adoption of streetcars opened a new era. Fast transportation allowed cities to expand-on average an additional six miles. The new neighborhoods had their own class structures. Middle class made the first wave of "escapes to the suburbs" in pursuit of the Victorian ideal of "closer to nature." Factories could be further from downtown with working class families clustered around them. Department stores developed because people could still come downtown to work or to shop in stores with a wider array of merchandise.
With the these new developments came the bungalow. The bungalow was developed in California in about 1900 and gradually spread eastward. It was a rejection of the traditional Victorian concept of large homes with space for servants and instead featured modern progressive concepts: simple, informal, efficient, thrifty, economical. Multipurpose rooms were the norm rather than dedicated spaces like sewing rooms or parlors.
Streetcars also gave rise to trolley parks. Trolley parks were amusement parks located on the fringe of town. They were formed by streetcar companies to increase ridership at midday and on weekends when traffic was otherwise slack. Coney Island is perhaps the best known one, but Muncie had one by 1900. Rides were often based on streetcar mechanisms, e.g., the roller coaster. Streetcar companies had open Summer cars that provided a pleasant breezy ride to the trolley park.
Streetcar companies were soon unionized. Strikes were not uncommon. They also were susceptible to corruption and manipulation. Key citizens often controlled the companies and made fortunes in real estate by extending lines into new areas and then selling lots. They could be a corrupting influence on city governments. Cases of streetcar companies bribing city council members are well documented. Schedules could be disrupted or fares manipulated for political effect or financial gain.
The book also covers the intercity electric streetcar lines known as interurbans. Streetcar technology was adapted to run at high speeds. Lines were constructed connecting many cities. (They were standard gage; some modern rail lines were originally constructed as interurban lines.) Fast acceleration made their travel time about the same as steam railroads, but fares were about half that of passenger trains. A network of lines made it possible to travel from Chicago to Buffalo and in the Northeast and West. Muncie has 10 to 12 interurbans to Indianapolis per day with a travel time of about two hours. In Wisconsin, interurban service began in 1897.
Interurbans sold electricity to the farms and small communities along their routes. Interurbans also carried farm produce, milk, dairy, US mail, and small packages as from Montgomery Ward or Sears. Interurbans made it possible for many to shop at department stores or go to the movies.
The peak passenger year for US streetcars was 1922-23. Thereafter traffic declined as the automobile began to dominate. Similarly, interurbans declined after 1935 when the federal government forced them to give up their electric utility service. The utility business had better growth potential while interurban demand declined during the depression.
The same electric traction technology allowed the creation of subways, which were impractical with steam engines due to smoke and fumes. Subways are mentioned only briefly in the current volume. The technology also allowed for electric locomotives which worked well in tunnels such as those under the Hudson River in New York City. Ultimately this technology led to the development of modern diesel electric locomotives. Those aspects are omitted in the current volume.
Electrification also resulted in significant changes in manufacturing. Previously mills had been powered by water wheels or by steam engines. These were arranged to power a rotating overhead shaft which was then connected to individual machines by leather belts. This system resulted in multistory buildings located close to waterwheel sites. Electrification allowed the water wheel to turn dynamos so the power could be transmitted electrically. Each machine could now have its own electric motor-allowing greater flexibility. Henry Ford's assembly line was possible due to electrification-which made conveyor belts possible.
The age of industrial electrification ran from 1880 to 1930, but until 1900 or so, the thrust was lighting. Brighter lights made operating a factory 24 hours per day more efficient, but initially the old inline power systems for machines were retained. Facilities with power plants often installed dynamos to make their own electricity. In 1900, factories consumed half of the electric power produced, but electricity provided less than 5% of their power requirement. Electric motors were mostly adopted after 1900, resulting in major changes in manufacturing by World War I.
Samuel Insull is mentioned only in a cursory way in this volume. Read more ›
The focus of the book is Muncie, IN, a mid-size American city which has been much studied by social scientists. It is sometimes called "Middletown" in these studies. The book covers street and commercial lighting, streetcars and interurbans, electrification of industry, and rural electrification.
Arc lights were the first artificial electric lights. They were known from 1802, but a power source was problematic until 1877, when Philadelphia's Franklin Institute concluded the Charles F. Brush dynamo (Brush Electric, 1880) was most practical. Orders poured in. An arc lighting system was installed at the courthouse in Wabash, IN, in 1880, four months after Edison demonstrated his electric light at Menlo Park. By 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc light streetlight systems. By 1882, St. Louis had a Brush arc system installed for its Fall Festival. (Brush Electric became part of General Electric in 1891.)
Developers soon realized lighting up the night attracted crowds. Lighting demonstrations were featured at expositions from 1883 (Louisville) to 1904 (St. Louis). Department stores, Marshall Field in Chicago and Jordan Marsh in Boston, were early adopters of arc lighting. Electric light was cleaner than gas, produced no smoke, no odor, no moisture, and no oxygen consumption. In addition, reduced risk allowed lower fire insurance rates.
Edison began sales to the public in 1885. Small DC systems were installed at Mt. Carmel, Sunbury (on the Susquehanna River in central PA), Johnstown, PA, Laramie, WY, Topeka, KS, Jackson, MI, in abt 1885, and in seven major buildings in Chicago. Streetlights, businesses, and upper class homes were early customers. Most urban homes were electrified between 1915 and 1930. In Muncie, electric service was provided from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m., at a flat rate, unmetered. But initially only 100 watts was available, often a single light in the center of the house. Some homes were wired for as little as $10, payable in installments. Fire alarm boxes, burglar alarms, and watchman clocks were available in Muncie by 1889.
The book provides excellent coverage of the streetcar and interurbans. Streetcars grew out of the congestion in major cities caused by dependence on the horse. People tended to live within about 5 mi. of downtown businesses, and the streets were filled with horse carts and coaches. Street railroads using horse-pulled cars were adopted after small steam engines proved unacceptable due to noise, dirt, and they frightened horses. But horse cars did little to relieve congestion.
Thomas Edison undertook development of electric streetcars at Menlo Park with support from Henry Villard in 1880-82. Villard had been a leader in financing the Northern Pacific Railroad, and later was president of Edison General Electric Co. Stephen Field built an early electric streetcar system in Stockbridge, MA. Edison and Field merged their companies to form Electric Railway Co., which had a demonstration line at the Chicago Railway Exposition in 1883. Early systems used a third rail. The advantages of the overhead trolley were recognized by 1885.
Frank Sprague developed an improved DC electric traction motor which used a compressed spring motor mount for isolation from vibrations on the car axle but yet solidly meshed with a drive gear on the axle. His design succeeded in Richmond, VA in 1887, and could manage an 8% grade. His company was acquired by Edison GE. Over 200 cities ordered systems by 1890.
The streetcar was faster than horses, typically 10 mph, and more economical. The need for stable personnel was avoided. The service life of a horse was only four years, and each ate his value in feed each year. Plus diseases could shut down service. Cable car technology was the only competitor, but it was more costly to build and less efficient due to need to pull heavy cable throughout the system. Many street railways were converted from horse to electric streetcars and extended with additional real estate development.
The adoption of streetcars opened a new era. Fast transportation allowed cities to expand-on average an additional six miles. The new neighborhoods had their own class structures. Middle class made the first wave of "escapes to the suburbs" in pursuit of the Victorian ideal of "closer to nature." Factories could be further from downtown with working class families clustered around them. Department stores developed because people could still come downtown to work or to shop in stores with a wider array of merchandise.
With the these new developments came the bungalow. The bungalow was developed in California in about 1900 and gradually spread eastward. It was a rejection of the traditional Victorian concept of large homes with space for servants and instead featured modern progressive concepts: simple, informal, efficient, thrifty, economical. Multipurpose rooms were the norm rather than dedicated spaces like sewing rooms or parlors.
Streetcars also gave rise to trolley parks. Trolley parks were amusement parks located on the fringe of town. They were formed by streetcar companies to increase ridership at midday and on weekends when traffic was otherwise slack. Coney Island is perhaps the best known one, but Muncie had one by 1900. Rides were often based on streetcar mechanisms, e.g., the roller coaster. Streetcar companies had open Summer cars that provided a pleasant breezy ride to the trolley park.
Streetcar companies were soon unionized. Strikes were not uncommon. They also were susceptible to corruption and manipulation. Key citizens often controlled the companies and made fortunes in real estate by extending lines into new areas and then selling lots. They could be a corrupting influence on city governments. Cases of streetcar companies bribing city council members are well documented. Schedules could be disrupted or fares manipulated for political effect or financial gain.
The book also covers the intercity electric streetcar lines known as interurbans. Streetcar technology was adapted to run at high speeds. Lines were constructed connecting many cities. (They were standard gage; some modern rail lines were originally constructed as interurban lines.) Fast acceleration made their travel time about the same as steam railroads, but fares were about half that of passenger trains. A network of lines made it possible to travel from Chicago to Buffalo and in the Northeast and West. Muncie has 10 to 12 interurbans to Indianapolis per day with a travel time of about two hours. In Wisconsin, interurban service began in 1897.
Interurbans sold electricity to the farms and small communities along their routes. Interurbans also carried farm produce, milk, dairy, US mail, and small packages as from Montgomery Ward or Sears. Interurbans made it possible for many to shop at department stores or go to the movies.
The peak passenger year for US streetcars was 1922-23. Thereafter traffic declined as the automobile began to dominate. Similarly, interurbans declined after 1935 when the federal government forced them to give up their electric utility service. The utility business had better growth potential while interurban demand declined during the depression.
The same electric traction technology allowed the creation of subways, which were impractical with steam engines due to smoke and fumes. Subways are mentioned only briefly in the current volume. The technology also allowed for electric locomotives which worked well in tunnels such as those under the Hudson River in New York City. Ultimately this technology led to the development of modern diesel electric locomotives. Those aspects are omitted in the current volume.
Electrification also resulted in significant changes in manufacturing. Previously mills had been powered by water wheels or by steam engines. These were arranged to power a rotating overhead shaft which was then connected to individual machines by leather belts. This system resulted in multistory buildings located close to waterwheel sites. Electrification allowed the water wheel to turn dynamos so the power could be transmitted electrically. Each machine could now have its own electric motor-allowing greater flexibility. Henry Ford's assembly line was possible due to electrification-which made conveyor belts possible.
The age of industrial electrification ran from 1880 to 1930, but until 1900 or so, the thrust was lighting. Brighter lights made operating a factory 24 hours per day more efficient, but initially the old inline power systems for machines were retained. Facilities with power plants often installed dynamos to make their own electricity. In 1900, factories consumed half of the electric power produced, but electricity provided less than 5% of their power requirement. Electric motors were mostly adopted after 1900, resulting in major changes in manufacturing by World War I.
Samuel Insull is mentioned only in a cursory way in this volume. Read more ›
3 of 3 people found the following review helpful
5.0 out of 5 stars
The history of electrification and an important glimpse into life in late 19th to early 20th Century America
September 8, 2009
By Paul Moreno
Format:Paperback|Amazon Verified Purchase
Electrifying America is one of the most interesting books I've ever read. Reading it is almost like traveling back to the time of gaslight and candles when homes had no appliances and electric streetcars allowed creation of the first suburbs.
The book is more about the impact of electricity on everyday life than about the great personalities of the influential innovators like Edison, Tesla, Insull and Ford, who are only given casual mention.
Electrifying America begins at the time of the great expositions, or Worlds Fairs, such as the Pan American, Trans Mississippi, Panama Pacific and the tremendously popular Columbian (Chicago 1892-3) where there were elaborate displays of lighting and exhibits of the latest electrical equipment. It also tells of the early public demonstarations of street lighting.
Being an engineer and a researcher of productivity, I especially appreciated the discussion of the enormous manpower savings made possible by electrifying factories. An example given was a glass jar manufacturing company that replaced manual glass blowers with machinery and used things like an overhead (bridge) crane to move heavy items across the factory. In addition to drastic labor savings total output increased several fold. Electric lighting greatly improved working conditions in factories and also greatly reduced fires, with large reductions in insurance premiums, often enough to pay for the lighting.
Another well described example is the Ford River Rouge plant, which was the world's largest factory, built for maximum efficiency and the first large scale center of mass production. Nye describes how electricity made completely new plant layouts possible and how electric motors revolutionized machine tools. (Eighty years later I was still using techniques like those pioneered at River Rouge to design manufacturing plants).
There is presented little in the way of statistical analysis, science or engineering. Economists should note that the decades of the highest economic growth in US history, 1890 to 1910, coincided with the beginnings of electrification and the street railway system.
While cities were electrified by the end of the 1920's, the vast majority of farms did not have electricity until the late 1940's, largely made possible through the efforts of the Rural Electrification Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Nye discusses the modern electrified household with new labor saving appliances like electric irons, washing machines, toasters and ranges. He also discusses the changing role of women in the workplace, the decline of domestic servants, the beginning of home economics, and the change from skilled artisans to semi-skilled factory workers.
Electricity's influence on art, literature and language are also discussed.
This is a fine example of a well researched and documented book, with many pages of footnotes, a bibliography and an index. Thoroughly enlightening and a pleasure to read.
A shortcoming of this book is that it keeps to it's name as being a social history. For a more technical book I recommend Hunter & Bryant "A History of Industrial Power in the U.S., 1780-1930: Vol 3: The Transmission of Power" which will be remembered as one of the best history of technology or economic history books on the subject and perhaps one of the great books in this field from the 20th century. Good luck finding it though. I recommend going to your library and getting one through the inter-library loan.
For the impact of efficiency in electrical generation see Ayes, Ayres and Warr's papers "Exergy, Power and Work in the US Economy 1900-1998" and "Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work", which update thinking about economics. For a more technical perspective see: A History of Industrial Power in the U.S., 1780-1930: Vol 3: The Transmission of Power by Louis C. Hunter, one of the best history of technology books on the subject.
The book is more about the impact of electricity on everyday life than about the great personalities of the influential innovators like Edison, Tesla, Insull and Ford, who are only given casual mention.
Electrifying America begins at the time of the great expositions, or Worlds Fairs, such as the Pan American, Trans Mississippi, Panama Pacific and the tremendously popular Columbian (Chicago 1892-3) where there were elaborate displays of lighting and exhibits of the latest electrical equipment. It also tells of the early public demonstarations of street lighting.
Being an engineer and a researcher of productivity, I especially appreciated the discussion of the enormous manpower savings made possible by electrifying factories. An example given was a glass jar manufacturing company that replaced manual glass blowers with machinery and used things like an overhead (bridge) crane to move heavy items across the factory. In addition to drastic labor savings total output increased several fold. Electric lighting greatly improved working conditions in factories and also greatly reduced fires, with large reductions in insurance premiums, often enough to pay for the lighting.
Another well described example is the Ford River Rouge plant, which was the world's largest factory, built for maximum efficiency and the first large scale center of mass production. Nye describes how electricity made completely new plant layouts possible and how electric motors revolutionized machine tools. (Eighty years later I was still using techniques like those pioneered at River Rouge to design manufacturing plants).
There is presented little in the way of statistical analysis, science or engineering. Economists should note that the decades of the highest economic growth in US history, 1890 to 1910, coincided with the beginnings of electrification and the street railway system.
While cities were electrified by the end of the 1920's, the vast majority of farms did not have electricity until the late 1940's, largely made possible through the efforts of the Rural Electrification Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Nye discusses the modern electrified household with new labor saving appliances like electric irons, washing machines, toasters and ranges. He also discusses the changing role of women in the workplace, the decline of domestic servants, the beginning of home economics, and the change from skilled artisans to semi-skilled factory workers.
Electricity's influence on art, literature and language are also discussed.
This is a fine example of a well researched and documented book, with many pages of footnotes, a bibliography and an index. Thoroughly enlightening and a pleasure to read.
A shortcoming of this book is that it keeps to it's name as being a social history. For a more technical book I recommend Hunter & Bryant "A History of Industrial Power in the U.S., 1780-1930: Vol 3: The Transmission of Power" which will be remembered as one of the best history of technology or economic history books on the subject and perhaps one of the great books in this field from the 20th century. Good luck finding it though. I recommend going to your library and getting one through the inter-library loan.
For the impact of efficiency in electrical generation see Ayes, Ayres and Warr's papers "Exergy, Power and Work in the US Economy 1900-1998" and "Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work", which update thinking about economics. For a more technical perspective see: A History of Industrial Power in the U.S., 1780-1930: Vol 3: The Transmission of Power by Louis C. Hunter, one of the best history of technology books on the subject.
Most Recent Customer Reviews
5.0 out of 5 stars
A valuable perspective
This book goes beyond an analysis of technological development; it presents an interpretation of American history from the perspective of available technology, and comes up with a... Read more
Published 21 months ago by Liriodendron
3.0 out of 5 stars
Plug it in, turn it on
This book is about how electricity transformed America. Nye explores how electricity changed the home (it was now cleaner and safer than gas), the factory, and transportation (it... Read more
Published on October 10, 2005 by Bomojaz
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