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Embryo: A Defense of Human Life

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This book, authored by two of my favorite philosophers, is perhaps the most sophisticated and clearly written defense of embryonic personhood that has come out since the onset of the biotech revolution.

George and Tollefsen are conversant with the scientific issues as well as the deep philosophical questions of nature and personhood that percolate beneath the surface. They are also well-versed in the arguments of those with whom the disagree. One of their adversaries, Lee Silver, a colleague of George's, is singled out for special treatment. What makes this analysis particularly enlightening is how it exposes how little care Silver takes in crafting his moral and metaphysical arguments. But Silver is not alone. This sort of philosophical negligence is symptomatic of an academic culture that churns out wonderfully smart technicians, like Silver, who have floated through their professional lives blissfully unaware of the cluster of moral and metaphysical beliefs they take for granted and make their projects possible, but for which their scientism can provide no grounding.

George and Tollefsen also critique Cartesian dualism as well as philosophical materialism, arguing for a Thomistic hylomorphism as the best account of the human person.

This is a wonderful book that should be in the library of any one who is serious about bioethics and the future of what it means to be human.

---Francis J. Beckwith, Associate Professor of Philosophy and Church-State Studies, Baylor University. author of Defending Life: A Moral and Legal Case Against Abortion Choice (Cambridge University Press, 2007)

In this important volume two philosophers with interests in bioethics and law make the case for the moral worth of the human embryo from non-religious grounds. The case instead is made with a combination of science (biology, embryology, genetics) and moral philosophy.

Thus this book covers a wide range of topics, and deals with the various technologies that threaten the human embryo, from abortion to cloning and embryonic stem cell research. Much of the discussion focuses on the scientific questions: what is an embryo, how is it formed and developed, and so on.

The authors show that at fertilisation a new and distinct human organism comes into existence. The newly formed zygote is genetically unique, and its sex is established. This newly formed zygote is genetically distinct from either of its two parents.

When sperm and oocyte unite, there is a new human individual which comes into existence. It is a "single, unified, and self-integrated biological system", argue the authors, which is on a "developmental trajectory" toward a mature stage of human being.

The authors remind us that the zygote is no longer some functional part of either parent, but a "unique organism, distinct and whole, albeit at the very beginning of a long process of development to adulthood". All the mother does from now on is provide nutrition and a safe environment for the embryo to grow.

And this growth is internally directed. It contains within itself all the "genetic programming and epigenetic characteristics necessary to direct its own biological growth". It is a complete or whole organism, in the very early stages of development. And the changes from embryo to fetus to child to adult, etc., are simply changes in degree, not changes in kind.

Thus the scientific question is easily answered. This is a wholly new and distinct genetic individual. And it of course is fully human. But questions arise as to whether this new human embryo is in fact a person. Here the authors move from science to philosophy.

For science cannot answer these sorts of questions. Thus the need for moral philosophy. And here the authors take on all the leading critics of the personhood of the human embryo. Peter Singer, Lee Silver, Judith Jarvis Thompson, Michael Tooley and others are all interacted with.

Drawing on a rich history of philosophical discussion, going back at least to Plato, the authors seek to establish the substance or essence of an entity, in distinction to its various characteristics or properties. Distinction, in other words, must be made between the kind of thing an entity is, and its accidental or contingent properties. For example, being left-handed or red-haired is not an essential feature of peronhood, but is simply an accidental property.

Utilitarian and consequentialist definitions of personhood fail to make this important distinction. Thus personhood is tied up with functionality and activity, instead of one's innate nature or essence. So persons are described as those with sentience, or self-consciousness, or various other functions. But the authors argue that the utilisation of these accidental properties is not the same as our fundamental nature or substance.

The various abilities to reason, communicate, make free choices, and perform other functions of course are not fully formed in the embryo, or even in a young child. They take time to mature and properly develop. But the capacity to perform such functions is with us from the very beginning. Each new human being "comes into existence possessing the internal resources to develop such capacities".

Thus human beings live personal lives, argue the authors. These lives are "characterised by a certain range of potentialities, which need not be fully instantiated or realized all at once or to the same degree in all cases".

The bulk of this book then takes on the various arguments made against the personhood of the embryo, and these functionalist definitions of personhood. Various philosophical and moral challenges and objections are carefully dealt with. Specific issues such as brain death, twinning, natural embryo loss, lifeboat ethics, surplus embryos, and other problems are discussed in detail. Challenges from cloning and other new reproductive technologies are also addressed. Finally, political, technological and cultural recommendations are made, based on this understanding of the complete humanity and personhood of the human embryo.

This is a very fine book that covers most of the bases in what is often a highly emotive and controversial debate. The scientific, moral and philosophical case for the worth of the embryo is here clearly and dispassionately made. The authors have produced a welcome addition to the growing body of pro-life literature.

Finally, a book that confronts the dishonesty directly--by challenging those who continue to deny the humanity of the early human embryo. Drawing from science, philosophy, and the law--but not religion, George and Tollefsen make a compelling case that the early human embryo is not a "potential" human being, or a "pre human being" or a clump of unformed cells, but rather an individual member of the human species--deserving of respect and protection. The arguments are complex but readers will surely appreciate the ability of the authors to make the information accessible. I was especially grateful for the careful attention given to presenting the problems of dualism--it is the best articulation I have ever read on the "irrationality" of the dualist assumption. The fact that Doubleday was willing to publish this wonderful book should give those who support life a reason to be optimistic for the future!

_Embryo: A Defense of Human Life_, published in 2008 by Doubleday, by Princeton professor of jurisprudence Robert P. George and philosophy professor Christopher Tollefsen is a profound defense of human life at all stages of development written by two notable philosophers (one of whom, Robert P. George, is a member of the President's Council on Bioethics). This book comes at an important time because it addresses an issue which has become one of critical importance - the stem cell research debate which may end up involving embryo-destructive research. This brief book argues that human life begins at fertilization and argues persuasively that this can be shown using human reason alone without appeals to religion and without mention of the human soul. The authors also refute various dualistic views of the human person and other moral positions showing them to be equally problematic. To do this, the authors must delve extensively into human embryology to show the development of the young human being. The authors also consider various philosophical arguments for and against embryonic-destructive research showing that the path is fraught with many difficulties. This book makes a profound case for the pro-life position and argues effectively against the destruction of human embryos for any purpose, even if that purpose may serve some greater good.

The first chapter of this book considers "What Is At Stake in the Embryo Experimentation Debate". The authors begin with a story "Noah and the Flood" telling the tale of Noah Benton who was rescued as an embryo from a hospital in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina and went on to become a healthy infant. From this the authors conclude that human embryos from the very beginning are indeed human life and one can see this in the growth and development of the embryo Noah who became the human infant Noah. The authors consider some of the technologies involving human embryos of today and tomorrow. They begin with the first such technologies including the creation of "test tube babies" and move on to the current debate over stem cell research. The authors also consider alternatives to embryonic destructive research showing that both the benefits of stem cell research have been greatly exaggerated and the alternatives not fully considered. The authors then consider the contention between "Religion and Reason" showing how their detractors have made the claim that arguments against embryonic destructive research are rooted in religion and not reason. However, the authors show that such arguments can be made without appeal to religious revelation and are in fact rooted in a profound respect for human life at all stages of its development. The authors then provide the layout of the argument contained in the rest of the book. The second chapter of this book considers "The Facts of Embryology" and provides a detailed highly technical discussion of the facts of embryology and embryonic development. The authors provide a detailed discussion of this topic focusing especially on when human life is created in this process. The authors examine gametogenesis and then show how through the process of fertilization a new human life comes to be. The authors conclude that life begins no later than at syngamy, the lining up of pairs of chromosomes and may occur even earlier once the sperm has entered and united with the oocyte. The authors then trace the development and growth of the new organism as the embryo develops. The authors then consider "What is the Human Embryo", showing effectively that the embryo is a human person at the earliest stage of development, and also demonstrating that human male and female gametes are not human persons just as somatic cells are not human persons. The authors also consider cases of twinning and various other arguments that have been put against the claim that life begins at fertilization and effectively shows why they do not refute this claim. Further, the authors distinguish between human embryos which are human persons and disordered growths such as hydatiform moles or teratoma. The third chapter of this book is entitled "Dualism and Persons". Here, the authors discuss and argue against various "person-body dualisms", e.g. soul-body and mind-body dualism of Plato and Descartes, Lockean dualism, brain-body dualisms, constitutionalism, and moral dualism, finding all to be problematic in that they do not reflect the fundamental unity of the human person. The authors argue for "animalism" arguing that humans are human animals, distinct individuals of the species Homo sapiens. The fourth chapter is entitled "Moral Philosophy and the Early Human Being". The authors consider various moral philosophies, e.g. those of Bentham, Mill, and Sidgwick (utilitarianism), utilitarianism and consequentialism (mentioning the views of Peter Singer), Kant and deontology, and natural law and human fulfillment. The authors argue for human rights and human dignity in light of these considerations. The fifth chapter is entitled "Moral Dualism" and considers the case of various philosophers who may admit that human embryos are human persons but who deny that all human persons have a right to life. The authors consider such topics as the developmental view, the attribution view of personhood, arguments from brain death and grief, arguments concerning natural embryo loss, and various arguments concerning who one would rescue relating to human embryos. The authors show these arguments to be fallacious and provide a case against them. The sixth chapter is entitled "New Objections to the Humanity of the Early Embryo" and considers further objections made to the humanity of the human embryo. The authors consider such topics as individuals, organisms, and person in which an argument is made that the human embryo can be considered an individual, the unity of the early human embryo, arguments made based on the supposed fact that the embryo does not look human, arguments concerning somatic cells, arguments concerning stem cells, an argument attempting to make the distinction between vegetative and sentient life, etc. The authors refute these arguments effectively and maintain their position regarding the human embryo. The seventh chapter of this book is entitled "Further Challenges". Here, the authors consider an argument made relating acorns and embryos, arguments concerning "clonotes" and discussing the tricky moral challenges of human cloning, and an argument claiming that "nothing is lost" and "there is no cooperation with evil" for those who benefit from embryonic destructive stem cell research though they may be opposed to embryonic destruction. The authors again refute these arguments effectively. The last chapter of this book is a "Conclusion". The authors consider "The Political Question" (explaining how theories of "political liberalism" have been used against those who oppose embryonic destructive research and maintaining that the United States should acknowledge in law that it will protect embryonic human life), "The Technological Question" (considering alternatives to embryonic stem cells and arguing that these alternatives should be heavily funded), and "The Cultural Question" (considering the case of embryos which have been frozen in fertility clinics and considering the possibility that these embryos may be "adopted" and calling for regulation of such practices so that excess embryos are not created).

This book offers a profound argument in support of human life at all stages of development. The authors address significant issues concerning the human embryo and refute challenges raised to the claim that life begins at fertilization. The authors consider possibilities and alternatives to embryonic destructive research and examine problematic topics. As such, this book offers an important case made in defense of human life.

This is an excellent book that presents the science of what an embryo is, the science of early life, and the science involved in the procedures to extract pluripotent stem cells. Additionally, the book covers the science behind SCNT and the semantics involved in trying to erroneously distinguish between reproductive and so-called "therapeutic" cloning. The book tackles all of the ethical arguments that seek to argue against the humanity (which science confirms that the embryo is a human being) and the personhood of the human embryo, that it is the same as a fetus, later baby, adolescent, adult, etc, just at a different developmental stage. Thus, there is no difference in kind between an embryo and an adult human being. The book does not include any religious dogma or any argument or basis drawn from any revelation or ecclesiastical authority. It relies strictly on science, reason, and moral philosophy. Challenge yourself by reading this book today! Also, for an excellent review and detailed look at the book, visit: Zenit and search for the book title. Amazon.com for some reason will not let me list the url here.

Thorough presentation of Embryology, Developmental Biology, and the arguments for and against viewing an embryo as a human life. Would recommend it for anyone interested in enlightenment on the issues and arguments.

When does the human being, person, individual begin? This question is vexing our society. Here George and Tollefsen present a coherent answer to this not from religion or theology, but from science, morality and public policy.

There is different loci to this issue, the moral, the scientific, the political, which they categorize as: embryo science, embryo technology and embryo ethics.

Science and technology do not answer the vital question which is the major thrust of this effort: "guidance in making moral decisions about the treatment of those embryos or of human beings at any developmental stage."

They persistently rely upon their conclusion from embryo science that: from "embryologists and developmental biologists, who are collectively responsible for the standard textbooks in their fields, agree in making fertilization, not gastrulation, as the beginning of the human individual." This they summarize in this well put phrase: "the early human embryo is not "a potential human" but a "human with potential".

They then proceed to take on all challengers who would deny this human being the right to all the moral rights and protections that we all have from solely from being what we are, a human being. These include such as dualism, utilitarianism, consequentalism, those that would deny that the early human embryo is not a whole individual, etc. They also contend with those who put forward that embryonic stem cells are equivalent to embryos and make the important point that the early human embryo has everything it needs inside itself to come to development as a human being if protected and allowed to develop.

Their arguments seem well conceived and the repute they offer to their challengers strikes this reviewer initially as significant. I wait however to review the continuing debate between the sides. This civility in reaching public policy the authors correctly state is the overarching impetus for this book's being published.

I appreciate they do not enter into any theological argumentation, although this certainly is near and dear to many of us. That they can provide this coherent and captivating argument above all others must be dealt with by the opposition in public forum avenues.

Anyone interested at all in this controversial area with any amount of open mindedness will want to read this finely crafted effort. They conclude by placing forward three major proposals for each of three areas, i.e. Technological, Cultural and Political.

An excellent, timely and user friendly review and debate resourse for those who wish to be articulate and well informed defenders of life.

The first chapter is very good, as it clearly lays out the framework for the questions that will be addressed throughout the rest of the book. Important distinctions are made, and the analogy of "killing retarded people for their organs" clearly illustrates why most pro-hESCR replies to our arguments do not even address the issue, let alone rebut the objection. This, of course, is the same problem with a good 90% (my estimate) of pro-choice arguments, as Beckwith points out in Defending Life.

The authors then go on to argue their substance view of the human person. This is contrasted with dualistic theories like those of Descartes and others. This is important because if we don't know what it is that makes us valuable and worthy of life, then we are on totally different pages when arguing the question with those in favor of h-ESCR. Not only do the authors contrast their views with "old" philosophers like Descartes, but they interact with current bioethecists like Ron Green and Lee Silver, two leading proponents of h-ESCR, as well as many others.

Many good things have been said about this book already, so I will simply add that this book gives the best defense to the "burning fertility clinic scenario" I have ever read. This argument can sometimes catch pro-lifers off guard (as it did once to me and I didn't have a convincing answer to it) but the authors show how terribly flimsy and weak it really is. It is good to have a response to this argument because it has found its way into teh "popular" arena where the average man on the street can give this argument and seem like he has a strong case against valuing embryos. However, the argument patently fails as the authors very well demonstrate.

This is one of the main issues of our times, and people need to be well read in clear, rational thinking about these issue which forgo all religious and emotive arguments. This book does precisely that.

"Embryo" is a great book for the educated layman on the topic of personhood and beginnings of human life. The authors, George and Tollefsen, explain their thesis in down to earth terms, and without relying on religious arguments. Their position is that the person begins at conception and that the modern biologic sciences affirms this position. They succeed in developing their thesis and in defending it against a number of opposing arguments. The best book I have read on the embryonic personhood issue.