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The Evolution of Medieval Thought

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***EDITED 1/19/10*****

This book is a concise introduction to the development of medieval thought. Specifically it discusses the thinkers themselves and the institutions that birthed them. The main word to keep in mind here is that this an "overview" of medieval thought.

Still, making your way through it requires considerable intellectual work. Knowles gives you a page or two of biographical summary (easy going) followed by three or four pages of text about the particular thinkers' attempt to square neo-platonism with Christian aristotlianism. I can't say that I got all the finer points in the text-- far from it.

That aside, the basic evolution is clear, with the high point coming in the thirteenth century as the complete works of Aristotle were rediscovered and absorbed by various thinkers, leading up to the work of Thomas Aquinas. Thereafter, there was a retreat from the project of synthesizing theology with philosophy.

I recently had the occasion to re-read this book after a trip to Italy. I found it much easier sledding the second time through, and it def. helped to have in mind the Italian Renaissance for context... Most of the activity here precedes the Quattrocentro, and most of the action takes place in France, not Italy (though Italy does play a strong role.) I advanced my rating from four to five stars to reflect the fact that I liked this book enough to read it again five years later.

This book is essential for the student of Medieval Philosophy. It is the best, I prefer it even over E. Gilson's introductory Medieval works. It is not superficial, it is rigorous and yet not boring. The serious undergraduate's thirst will be quenched. His history is accurate. This is the standard by which the rest of the Medieval texts for undergraduates will be judged.

David Knowles's fine book is a great survey of the intellectual struggles of the medieval period. He places these developments in historical context, and shows the rise of the modern university systems in Europe and England as perhaps the greatest achievement of the period. I appreciated his discussions of how the better minds of the age, such as Boethius, Albert the Great, St. Bonaventure, St. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham, developed their own ideas in the context of Church dogma, and grappled with, and found ways to reconcile Christian thought with the ancient teachings of Plato, Aristotle, and Plotinus, who came to their attention through ongoing, erratic discoveries and transmission of writings by Arab sources and Islamic philosophers like Avicenna and Averroes.

These developments, and ultimately the work of William of Ockham, set the stage for the Renaissance, Reformation, and Age of Reason that were soon to unfold, and Knowles suggests how the well-demarked positions of leading thinkers manifested in those movements.

Also of tremendous value is his suggestions for further study, with source materials in English, French, and German. He cautions that intensive study of the medieval period really cannot be done without a good reading knowledge of French. No doubt German is also helpful, but more so for the study of mysticism than the medieval scholars he concentrates on in this work. Even so, David Knowles has done a splendid job of giving the general reader a well-informed overview of this subject.

Father Knowles' (1896-1974)book titled THE EVOLUTION OF MEDIEVAL THOUGHT was first published in 1962 by Vintage Press. The book should encourage readers who are not familiar with Medieval thought and scholarship. This book is a well written concise summary of Medieval teaching/learning and scholarship which was impressive and surprisingly diverse.

Father Knowles began this book with a brief explanation of the work of Plato (427-347 BC) who was a mystic and Aristotle (384-322 BC) who was more "practical and logical." The influence of their work on Medieval scholars and theologians cannot be overestitmated. Knowles' book traced their influence from late Ancient History through the High Middle Ages which showed just how important the Ancient Greek philosophers were.

The section re St. Augustine (354-430 AD)was well written. St. Augustine was influenced by Plato's mysticism, and St. Augustine was an authority during the Middle Ages. Readers may be interested that St. Augustine and St. Jerome (346-420 AD), who translated the Vulgate Bible, had sharp exchanges and serious differences. Yet, the Catholic Church authorities canonized both men as saints. St. Augustine wrote THE CITY OF GOD in which he argued that the City of Man was to be shunned and that men should aspire to God and His realm. As an aside, Father Knowles wrote that St. Thomas Aquinas' (1225-1274)work would have no place in St. Augustine's scheme of things.

The next sections of the book dealt with Boethius (480-525) and Dionysus (c. 550). Boethius wrote the CONSOLATION OF PHILOSPHY while in prison awaiting execution. Boethius cited both the work of Plato and Aristotle as means of obtaining divine wisdom and a closer realization of God. Dionysis was confused with the person mentioned by St. Paul. By 1121, the difference was detected, but St. Thomas Aquinas thought Dionysus' work was so useful that Aquinas did not care about the difference.

During the time of the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the Dark Ages (c.500-750 AD), learning almost disappeared in Europe. The only teaching and learning that were done were accomplished in monastaries and convents. All that was available was Ancient learning and philosphy and literature. Catholic authorities and those who lived in religious communities knew that if learning died, the Catholic Faith could disappear. They had texts of the ancients which they preseved, hand copied, and used to teach others. Examples of such men included Alcuin (670-735)who developed grammar texts for students. Erigena (815-877),who had a sense of humor, revived speculative philosophy. The basic curriculum was the Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic)and the Quadriviusm (Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy). Readers should note that the Quadrivium did not emerge until c. 1000 AD.

Other developments re learning included the Cathedral Schools such the one at Aachen which was encourage by Charlemange (768-814). The Cathedral Schools did not replace the monastic schools, but the Cathedral Schools helped to attract students who were unable to enter Holy Orders. Even during the Second Dark Ages (880-1000 AD), the monks and nuns who survived were able not only to preserve learning but to expand it. Some of the Popes were also interested in expanding learning such as Pope Sylvester II (999-1003)who was a scholar of merit.

One of the problems for Medieval Catholic authorities and theologians was to emphasize the Faith without falling into superstition. St. Anselm (1035-1109)wrote theological texts titled MONOLOGIAN and PROSLOGIAN to emphasize that the Catholic Faith had to be reasonable to be accepted and defended. St.Anselm is often referred to as the Father of Scholasticism which was basically the method of teaching, learning, and scholarship. Anselm's work was important to later generations who tried to reconcile what was called Credo et Ratio or belief and reason.

Out this reconcilation was the work of Peter Abelard (c.1073-1142)whose life and work have been exaggerated. Peter Abelard wrote a work titled SIC ET NON (YES AND NO)in which Abelard used contradictory statements from the Bible, the Church Fathers, etc. Abeland did not write this work to embarrass the Catholic Faith. He wrote this book as a text for students to resolve the problems and apparant contradicions. Abelard did get into trouble because of of arrogance and love affair. St. Bernard (1090-1153)feared Abelard's work because Abelard would not leave the concept of the Holy Trinity alone St. Bernard thought that such speculation would trivialize the Holy Trinity. Yet, Abelard was not severely penalized and died in full commuion with the Catholic Church. Abelard's work was important because he made men think. Peter Lombard (c100-1160)may have written THE FOUR BOOKS OF SENTENCES (Creation/Creator, Incarnation, Redemption, and Sacraments)to reconcile the contradictions Abelard presented.

Knowles description of Medieval universities was informative. Some of the Medieval universities evolved from the Catholic Schools such as Paris University (c.1200) which probably evolved from the Cathedral School of Notre Dame (c. 1150). The University of Salerno started as early as 1070 and was among the first of Medieval univesities. There were other universites whose orgins are unclear. The fact was that the old Monastic and Cathedral schools could not accomodate the fast growing student body in Europe.

While Father Knowles was Catholic, he was fair to Moslems and Jews and their contributions to Medieval learning.For example, Knowles cited the importance of Averroes (1128-1198)whom St. Thomas Aquinas called the Commentator (The Commentator on Aristotle0. The well know Jewish scholar Maimonides (1135-1204) made important contributiions which Catholic Scholastics acknowledged.

Fahter Knowles later sections were well done. Knowles did a good job of explaining the work of St. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)whose work embellished reason and revived Aristotle's work re reason and logic. Neither man was a slave to Aristotle. Knowles was clear that for his well earend reputation, St. Thomas Aquinas NEVER wrote that he (Aquinas)had all the answers. Aquinas wanted to build the Church Intellectual to understand the Faith and God. As Father Knowles noted, one of the later problems with Aquinas is that some men have tried to make Aquinas' work a sort of dictionary to find answers when in fact Aquinas only wanted to show a method of reason and faith to enchance an understanding of men, nature, and God.

After the death of St. Thomas Aquinas, condemnations and charges of heresy were levelled at Aquinas, St. Bonaventure (1221-1274),etc. This decline in Scholasticism brought a division between philosphy and theology which has only recent been healed. Later Medieval scholars studied science and did important work such Robert Brosseteste (1175-1253)who examined optics, mathematics, etc. Roger Bacon (c.1214-1294)whose reputation may have been exaggerated and who was a bit unstable did work in experimental science.

The work and thought of Duns Scotus (1265-1308), William of Ockham (1385-1349)was well done. These later men did not approve of Aquinas' work, and they used mysticism and sometimes experimentation to exaamine "Ultimate Questions." Yet, in 1879, Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903)revived studies in Thomasitc philosphy and theology which revived both Aguinas' work and interest in Medieval thought.

Father Knowles wrote an excellent book. This reviwer's only criticism is that Medieval historians should give readers a better understanding of the condtions under which men taught and learned. Paper and ink were expensive, and notes were often taken on wax tablets. Books were far too expensive, and memory was so important. Once readers realize this, they have a better historical appreciation of the work done during the Middle Ages. This book is highly recommended.

James E. Egolf

January 10, 2011