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How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel

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How the Bible Became a Book by William Schniedewind discusses not only when the bible may have come about, but also the importance of how and why it was written. Schniedewind cites a broad range of evidence to support his theses. He also utilizes a realistic look at the different time periods of ancient Israel to help explain his view. Although Schniedewind postulates that the Bible was written down between 8th to 6th century BCE, his endeavors in writing the book are not based around this concept. He gives insight to the history of writing and the alphabet to demonstrate the evolution of the primarily oral ancient culture, to one that relies on a singular book to relate to God. It is a well written, informative piece of work. Schniedewind's ideas and theories come across clearly and articulately. He does an excellent job of citing relevant evidence that not only proves his own postulates, but also disproves those that he is refuting.
This book is definitely worth a read. Whether you are interested in the history of ancient Israel, writing or different viewpoints of how, when and why the Bible came about, it's all covered.

How The Bible Became A Book: Textualization In Ancient Israel by William M. Schniedewind (Chair of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures at UCLA) combines recent archaeological discoveries in the Middle East, linguistic anthropology, and insights drawn from the history of writing to present as close an understanding as reasonably possible in this day and age of how the Hebrew Bible was written and edited. For two hundred years, scholars have presumed the Bible was written during the Persian and Hellenistic priods (the fifth through second centuries B.C.E.); new evidence has come forth that the late Iron Age (eighth through sixth centuries B.C.E.) may have been a crucially formative period for Biblical literature. Exploring the evolution of literature in society and its secular as well as religious ramifications, How The Bible Became A Book is a welcome addition to Biblical studies shelves, as readable and articulate as it is scholarly.

So as to not complicate things, let me say that Schniedewind wants to answer two questions in this book. One is when most of the Hebrew Bible/ the Bible were put into writing and the second is why. The average reader who has found this book will probably be well versed in the Documentary Hypopthesis. JEPD or JEDP were sources that were compiled and then redacted to form most of the Bible. According to which version of the documentary hypothesis one subscribes to, the sources were written in the 10th, 9th, 7th, 6th, 5th, or 4th century.

One might also be aware of tradition history which became popular among Scandinavian scholars. In this view, the writings were later in Israelite history, but the oral traditions had been passed on for years, even centuries. Or one might be aware of the latter scholarship. The Copenhagen School pushes for the Bible being written in either the Persian or the Hellenistic period. Other scholars such as Redford or Finkelstein push for dating the Bible to the Saite period because of topographical reasons and the like.

Being the socialogist that he is, I'm surprised that Niels Peter Lemche (Copenhagen School) did not consider Schniedewind's argument before. In a nutshell it runs like this: writing ran against many social norms in the ancient world. Only by the time of Hezekiah was Israel ready to accept the transition of oral traditions to written text.

I think Schniedewind stirs up some confusion when he argues that orality had an authority over and against the written word. On page 15 he writes "the Rabbis were strident in emphasizing that oral tradition served as a final authority greater than written Torah." He does not cite Talmud Jerushalmi Hor 3.8 which says that "Mishnah can take precedence over Scripture, " but the idea is the same. If writing had taken ascendency during the time of Hezekiah, what matter is being debated by the Rabbis?

In contrast to the ideal of the Rabbis, Schniedewind writes that the catalysts for the transformation of Judean society (to one that depended upon writing) began with the Assyrian conquest. Assyria carved out an empire that stretched from India to Egypt. "Writing became an increasingly important tool in administrating the empire" (page 65). Hezekiah had as a part of his political agenda the recreation of a Golden Age, the age of David and Solomon. This he did by combining northern traditions with southern so that the influx of northern refugees could find some semblance of assimilation into Judean society.

Concerning the Exilic period, Schniedewind shows that the Babylonians had a tremendous impact on Judea. In the 7th century BCE, there were 116 settled sites in Judea. After the Babylonian conquest there were only 41. "Moreover the average size of the sites has shrunk, from 4.4 hectares to 1.4 hectares ..." Using such evidence Schniedewind argues that there was no literary production in Judea during the Exilic period.

Tarah Henderson
October 31, 2005
Religion 101.08
Cargill

A Review of William M. Schniedewind's: How the Bible Became a Book

Chapter 1: How the Bible Became a Book
Schniedewind began the question of how today's Bible became a book by examining the theory with three main issues. These were: who wrote the bible, how is it that the Bible is written at all, and finally, what were the historical situations that allowed the Bible to become a text and finally written scripture. The part that I found the most interesting was when he was discussing the first question regarding the author. He showed how changing social standards alter the ways that people view language. To illustrate this he created a parallel between the Constitution and the Bible. When the Constitution was created there were many differences with social standards than we see today, especially regarding the treatment of African Americans, and basically all those non-white property owning males. The founders of the Constitution had these similar values; they were unable to know that ideas would drastically change in the following centuries. Schniedewind pointed out that when Plessy v. Fergusson and Brown v. The Board of Education occurred they changed our social standards they altered the way Americans viewed the Constitution. It was not the text that changed; rather it was our interpretation of it. Seeing these differences in opinion with relation to the Bible not only gives evidence of the authors as people but also a historical view of their values, theories, and ways of life. Focusing on the historical evidence also takes the focus away from the author as a single individual and allows you to see it for what it really was, a collection of works from many individuals over a period of time.
Chapter 2: The Numinous Power of Writing
This section describes the transition of the views of writing. I found this especially interesting because of the differences on perspective that Schniedewind explained. The fact that the Bible was written down at all was very significant and even slightly strange. In early Jewish and then Christian times writing was seen as a gift from the gods. The ability to write was reserved only for those in high religions and political positions. This kept the majority non-literate; Schniedewind explained that only about one percent of the ancient Mesopotamia and Greece societies were literate. Egyptians also had strong views when it came to written texts. They created, "Execration Texts;" these were used to perform voodoo-like black magic over other people. The person wishing to harm on the other would simply either write the name or other words on a figurine. Writing the person's name was significant because it was believed to hold a part of the person, destroying the name could do physical harm as well. They believed that once the object was broken the curse would occur.
Chapter 3: Writing and the State
Chapter three examines the use of writing in conjunction with the government. In my opinion, the most interesting part of this section looks at the ancient city of Ugarit. Ugarit had the first use of the alphabet; made of 30 cuneiform characters. This was when the society was at its peak of civilization in the middle part of the second millennium. The alphabet, although taking over a millennium to become widely used helped to advance literacy and lessen the governmental restriction. When the city was excavated there were numerous literary texts found that included the Ugaritic language. These documents included myths, economic correspondences, letters, administrative documents, and school texts. Schniedewind explained the significance of Ugarit in relation to the expansion of writing in Israel was based on two things: first; that the development of a complex economy and government, and second; when comparing the Ugaritic poetry with that of Israel it showed Israel as being a part of larger cultural context.
Chapter 4: Writing in Early Israel
The writing in ancient Israel was begun after a long period of oral tradition. It was only when there was extensive development of the state that literature began to be seen. Leading up to this point the Israelite people were wanderers leading semi-nomadic lives until they reached Cannan which seems to be the first main location of lasting civilization. Schniedewind told that the first biblical literature was in the form of worship songs, some of which are still sang daily today; including "The Song of Moses." These songs were originally passed on through oral tradition, however, later they were written in prose. The section is concluded by examining the relation of Canaanite and Israelite scribes and the early Israelite monarchy.
Chapter 5: Hezekiah and the Beginning of Biblical Literature
King Hezekiah is often viewed as being responsible for Biblical literature. When he ruled Jerusalem he greatly advanced their centralized government. This was subsequently due to the rise of the Assyrian Empire. When Assyria rose to dominate the power over the other smaller territories, the Israelites along with many other groups had to relocate to find safer living environments. This is when they moved to Jerusalem. The rapid urbanization from the massive number of Israelites as well as refugees populated the new society. It was after this that Hezekiah came to power. During his term he focused on improving Jerusalem. Hezekiah created a new system of taxation. He used the profits to fund building projects throughout Judah.
Schniedewind goes on to explain about Pentateuchal Literature. Here he examines where the idea of writing was first seen in the Bible. Deuteronomy is the first section where the subject of writing arises. There is no sign of writing in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. It is in jubilees where the topic of writing is seen in the first verse. I found this very amazing because it shows that the ancient people had the desire to record their history.
Chapter 6: Josiah and the Text Revolution
One interesting theory from this section that Schniedewind explains is the argument regarding the use of vowels in Greece and Jerusalem. He is opposing Eric Havelock's opinion that the widespread literacy was the result of the Greek's development of the vowel in the 5th century BC. The Israelites previously created a more simplified vowel system in the 7th century BC. Schniedewind argues against Havelock that the reason that the Greeks were very adamant about their vowel system was that it was more necessary for their language.
During King Josiah's reign there was the first large spread of literacy. It was at this point that the "illiterate" actually began to be seen as an individual group, the minority. Because of these changes with the amount of literate people increasing it actually caused a decline in the quality of their texts. The decline in literary value was related to the educational system. Previously, all literate people were trained in special schools for scribes; when the literacy reform occurred and it began to be more important for everyday people to become literate, they were not trained to the extent that previous professionals were.
Chapter 7: How the Torah Became a Text
Schniedewind separated this chapter into three very significant occurrences with in the Torah. The first is the revelation at Sinai with Moses; the second is the significance of the stone tablets given by God, and finally the written law at Horeb. It is in this section where writing is so significant. Moses is often credited with being the primary individual responsible for the Torah becoming a text. This was very interesting to me because I was always unclear when the writing of the commandments and the stone tablets was first seen. Schniedewind explained that it was not until Exodus 24 when the covenant ceremony was over that the idea of writing appeared. Unlike popular belief, writing was not seen at the revelation at Mt. Sinai, when the 10 commandments were given, or in the covenant code. It is at this time, in Exodus 24 that Moses actually writes the Torah, the people make a covenant to God with blood, God is seen, and God even promises to write on the tablets of stone. One important thing to note is that the Torah specifically names the "scroll of the covenant." This scroll is what Moses read to the people before they agreed to the covenant. In this way, we see that the reading of the scroll signified an agreement to the covenant between God and Israel.
Chapter 8: Writing in Exile
The Babylonian exile is a period that destroyed Jewish life as it was previously known. Babylonian armies overtook the Israeli communities and either completely decimated the town or changed its government. Jerusalem was burned to the ground and Judah was destroyed. Although these changes occurred, the scribal ways were still present and prevailed into the Persian Empire.
Schniedewind explained that there are two main theories regarding the use of writing during this period. The first was argued by Peter Ackroyd when he wrote, Exile and Restoration. In this be explained that the difficulty of the times created a period of dramatic productivity with the writing, collecting and editing of the Torah. Ackroyd believed that following the destruction of Jerusalem the Israeli people desired to preserve its history. This desire led to an increase in writing. On the other spectrum is C.C. Torey. He not only believed that writing did not occur during the Babylonian Exile, he believed that it did not even happen. Torey, rather thought that the age was simply a fiction created by priests in the Persian period.
Chapter 9: Scripture in the Shadow of the Temple
This section examines the writing of the Torah and Jewish life during the Persian Empire (5th - 3rd centuries BC). Jerusalem, which was previously a thriving society drastically declined with the coming Persian Period. Yehud was dramatically depopulated and grossly impoverished. During this time, the Davidic kings vanished and leadership was transferred to the priests. Although the Persian Empire was previously seen as a period of advancement, Schniedewind disagreed. He believed that the work of the priests was to preserve the religion and written texts; not necessarily write extra information. Aramaic overtook Hebrew as the primary religion. It became the primary language for Jewish people living in the Second Temple period; even scribes were taught in Aramaic. The little amount of Hebrew that was still used was kept private and was only for the perseverance of the Israeli religion and language. Religious life was transferred to temples; this was the sight of the priests' work. In addition to editing the framework for the Bible, priests also divided the Psalms into a five part book. This was the same as "The Five Books of Moses," known as the Pentateuch.
Chapter 10: Epilogue
As a conclusion to his novel, Schniedewind compares the use of oral tradition and the written text. He explains that oral tradition should not be viewed as less important or valid than written text. He furthers this by explaining that the Vedas, the Hindu religious text was only passed on orally for centuries, although they also had a formed written language and alphabet. Schniedewind further tells of the Dead Sea Scrolls, some of the most important Archaeological discoveries in history. They were found by a young boy in search of his lost sheep. He stumbled into a cave that contained over 900 manuscripts, twenty-five percent of which were biblical literature.
As a whole I found this novel very interesting and informative. Although I was raised a Christian I always felt like I did not have enough knowledge about my own religion, nor how it came into being. I feel like Schniedewind presented this material very well because it can be very biased. One of the most credible aspects of his writing was that he seemed to focus on main points and historical data, rather than just opinion. Although I did like this book, I also found some areas slightly confusing, and because it spanned over such a large period of history at times some material seemed to contradict at first glance. Although slightly confusing, overall I would highly recommend How the Bible Became a Book. To me it should not just be read by Christians, but rather, by anyone desiring to know more about the development of Judaism and Christianity.

In William M. Schniedewind's How the Bible Became a Book: A textualization of Ancient Israel Schniedewind answers the questions of who wrote the Bible, when was it written and why was even written down at all.
He starts with his prologue which paints the background for the book and fills you in on what the scholarly community has been debating over and briefly explains why and to what view he is adhering to personally.
In chapter one Schniedewind gives an overview of the context of the rest of the book. He briefly goes over the main issues such as; who wrote the Bible, why the Bible is a written text, as well as when the Bible was written. He directs you to ponder the exact questions he is about to address.
Chapter two brings up the fact that in pre-literate societies writing was considered extremely sacred and even possessed magical powers. Very few people could read or write in these ancient societies so that added to the sacredness of the written word. Often times written words were used in magic as part of the components of a curse or a spell.
The third chapter Schniedewind explains the importance of the invention of the alphabet and how it made literacy more accessible. Schniedewind continues on to explain how because literacy was still so scarce that scribes and writing were a sign of the power that a king possessed. There was no way you were considered a king, no matter who you
were, if you did not have a royal scribe. The royal scribes usually wrote down records and made inscriptions. These inscriptions were often used as monuments to be set in the public eye view. Although almost no one could read it did not matter because the inscriptions were not meant to be read but rather were symbols of the king's power on display.
Chapter four goes over the persistent problem of the ancient world of written versus oral. The ancient world was originally extremely predominately an oral tradition society; everything that was learned was passed down through oral recollections or stories. With the rise in literacy came the controversy over which, oral or written became an issue.
In chapter five we are told that because of the dominating Assyrians who adapted Aramaic (because of its `alphabetic writing system' which made is easier to learn to read and write) literacy became more common among upper social classes.. Written documents took a while to catch on to the encompassed general public because there wasn't really an actually need among the classes in society because they were mostly farmers and shepherds and such, which were usually non-literate anyway. Once urbanization began to grow, and eventually, so did the need for written documents and the literacy to read and write them. It says that literature was beginning to be written in the days of Hezekiah, but mostly by scribes.
Chapter six covers the time during the period of Josiah's Reform when the concept of textual authorship was discovered this was a time when kings used royal seals on their deeds and other `out going' documents or decrees to signify that this written document was from them, it is like a signature. During this time writing continued to gradually catch on to `everyone else' as its functionality continued to grow.
Chapter seven focuses on the Torah and that it was written down. Because the Torah was written down it created a lot of tension because many believed that the Torah should be taught orally from memory versus being read. It causes a lot of controversy because there a re textualized edits that differ between the oral presentation of the Torah and the written presentation of the Torah (i/e: Exodus 24) which deal with the detail between God speaking to Moses and God writing The Ten Commandments with his own finger (oral versus text).
In chapter eight Schniedewind goes the effects of the exile of Jehoihachin's family as well as the influence of Babylon had on writing and keeping records and how they directly effected the progress of the biblical text.
Chapter nine focuses on how biblical literature switched from the hands of the royal courts to the priests. Hebrew was at the brink of extinction because of the dominating Aramaic and exile; this lead to the textualization of the Jewish religion and the change of the meaning of the tetragramaton. Literature was now common and thus also a time when libraries were being valued and greatly expanded. At the end of the chapter Schniedewind synopsizes his book briefly reviewing the answers to the questions at the beginning of the book.
Finally in the last chapter (which is actually an epilogue) Schniedewind reiterates the importance of both the oral and written transmissions but puts them in the modern day scenario of the modern day Christian and Jewish religions.
Schniedewind is a very scholarly and intelligent man. This book was well written and was extremely well supported but I still found it very hard to really follow. I found that although I generally followed what he was saying I felt as though I was missing big parts of the points he was trying to get across to the reader. My lack of understanding of the entire `picture' of the book may come from my complete lack of any historical knowledge, or it may come from the fact that the book was a long read and I dislike to read, or it may have been my lack of ability to honestly understand the value of what Schniedewind was excited enough about to actually write a book on it; in any case, whatever the personal reason was, it made it hard for me to want to pick up the book each time. I did like this book more than a vast majority of the books that I was forced to read in high school, which I personally think says a lot for this author and his approach to a subject that often times can become over technical and confusing for the general public. Schniedewind does a great job of blending his mix of `scholarly audience talk' and his' general audience talk' in this book. I have to say that although I do not feel that I entirely understood this book, nor did I attain the full potential of the message that Schniedewind was trying to convey I would say that if you are the sort of person that finds ancients history interesting, and you are someone who like to read, than you will thoroughly enjoy this book. It was very informational and more than adequately covers the topic on the cover.

In William M. Schniedewind's book, How the Bible Became a Book, he explores three main questions: who wrote the Bible, how is the Bible written at all, and what were the particular historical circumstances under which the Bible becomes a text and then scripture? With each of these three questions, Schniedewind raises concerns that pertain to the topic, and then presents facts, coupled with his commentary, to answer the question. In doing so, he walks the reader through the history of the Bible throughout each of his nine chapters.
Schniedewind presents a large amount of information, which in return, allows the reader to draw educated conclusions from and decide what they want to do with it.

Beginning in the first chapter, Schniedewind explains that the Bible is a collection of books, with various different authors that wrote during different time periods. The Bible, as well as all ancient literature, began as an oral tradition passed down from generation to generation. The concept of authorship was not even introduced to the Jews until the age of Hellenism. However, even once the idea of authorship became important, it was still difficult to say who wrote the specific books of the Bible. An example of this can be seen in Jeremiah 36:32 where Jeremiah's prophecies are written down by a scribe, not Jeremiah himself. Often times, the person speaking and the ideas portrayed, are not recorded by that specific prophet. A key reason for this can be attributed to the understanding that prophets were instructed to speak the word of God rather than to write it. So then, if the question of who wrote the Bible seemingly unstressed, what should our focus be on? Schniedewind suggests that, "The meaning of the Bible depends more on when the Bible was written than on who wrote it". He argues the majority of the Bible was written down between the eight through sixth centuries B.C.E., and that the arrangement of the arrangement of the text took place between the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.

Early written records are limited but give us insight into the culture during their time. As it is discussed in chapter two, early writing was used to "communicate with the divine realm". Furthermore, the early Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures believed that by writing a person's name down you could potentially change their fate, as well as "capture the human essence". Schniedewind brings up an interesting point when he compares this ideology to that of the Christian religion; in a sense, "the ultimate fate of every person depends on whether his or her name is written in or erased from the divine book", referring to the Lamb's book of life. Chapter three reveals that in the ancient Near East, writing was used as a "display of royal power and authority". Scribes were used to make written records of "bureaucratic, economic, administrative, and religious matters". Although most people were illiterate, the appearance of text showed importance and power, hence the reason it appeared next to important statues and pieces of artwork.

It is difficult to know for sure when the oral traditions of many of these books began because of early civilizations semi-nomadic lifestyle. As wanderers, the early Israelites' literature consisted of oral proverbs, stories and songs. However, chapters five and six explain that as the Israelites started to settle and urbanize, writing became a key element in their society. The use of written text became necessary for governing large cities, communication amongst others, and recording important events and celebrations. Although "the act of writing is rarely mentioned in the eighth century prophets", books such as Isaiah, Micah, Hosea, and Amos contain text that can be dated to the late eighth century B.C.E., the period in which this urbanization took place. Schniedewind also suggests that the books of Genesis and Exodus were collected at this time because of the strong themes that they possess.

Chapter seven and eight state that, "the revelation of the Covenant Code in the book of Exodus was originally depicted as an oral revelation", as well as other books such as Deuteronomy around the late seventh century B.C.E. The events that took place in these books were then later recorded. These "divine plans for the tabernacle and Temple" were recorded on stones tablets. Also, the Temple Scroll and the Dead Sea Scrolls are an example of "textualization of Torah". Other archeological finds, such as the Cuneiform Tablet listing rations for Jehoiachin, supplement and reaffirm biblical writings. In this case, the tablet helped date and provide additional information for the Book of Kings. Other pieces of literature, Lamentations and Psalms for example, were created during the exile, so they were not written down until later in history. Schniedewind explains in chapter nine that very few books were written in the period between the fifth and third centuries B.C.E. Rather, during this time, priests were "adding superscriptions, providing editorial glosses, and shaping biblical literature into books and groups". The priests were not attributed with writing many books, they only are really given credit for writing Ezra, Nehemiah, and the Book of Chronicles; however, they added a prologue and conclusion to the Book of Job, arranged the Book of Psalms, and added other editorials that they felt were needed throughout the existing books.

Throughout William Schniedewind's How the Bible Became a Book, Schniedwind carefully presents how he believes that the Bible became to be a book. He does so in such a manner that his opinion and beliefs do not shine through the text. He simply presents ideas and backs them up with facts. Schniedewind does an exceptional job of using a plethora of different sources; for example, he refers to ancient artwork, pieces of literature, excavated tablets, and ancient creation myths. By doing so, the reader has a giant pool of information and sources that they can examine, and hopefully use to make their own informed decisions regarding the history of the Bible.

I particularly found Schniedewind's approach to the different authors of the Bible interesting. Instead of taking the side, that so many do, that the different authors take away from the validity of the text, he shows how later authors simply add insight to it. He explained that, during later periods, information would be added as clarification to the pieces of literature that might appear confusing. He also showed how the different authors' styles and language differed from one another, and how this can be identified in the text. Until recently, I was unaware that there were different authors within a passage commenting on the same thing; therefore, this book helped me to learn a little bit more about the four different types of narratives and their background.

The structure of his book makes it easy for the reader to follow the chronological history of the Bible. Schniedewind breaks each chapter down into many shorter sections. This also allows the reader to be able to pick out his main points, as well as be able to identify the shift in time periods. Maps and pictures of ancient artifacts are inserted throughout the text to help the reader visualize the material he is discussing. Furthermore, these images serve to familiarize the reader with these works if they have never heard of them or are having a difficult time recalling what exactly that particular piece looks like. In some books, images can be distracting from the text itself, but in this case the images strengthen the text.

I think that How the Bible Became a Book was extremely informative and fact based. I enjoyed reading about the history of a book that I am so familiar with, yet at the same time, know so little about. By taking a historical approach, the text was not too bias, from the perspective of an average student like myself. All in all, William Schniedewind's How the Bible Became a Book was an educational, yet enjoyable, read.

The Hebrew bible, a text whose words were crafted many years ago, is arguably the single most socially significant, both historically and contemporarily, collection of stories ever compiled. William Schniedewind in his book "How the bible became a book" tackles, with persuasive insight, central questions regarding the textualization of ancient Israel. Schniedewind explores the conditions which promoted the development of literacy amongst these ancient people and focuses on the function of literacy as connected to their divine text- the Hebrew Bible. Schniedewind seeks not to assign authorship of the Hebrew Bible, which would prove exceedingly difficult, but rather strives to determine an appropriate timeframe from which it develops. Seeing the Hebrew Bible as an aggregation of written stories drawn from older oral traditions, Schniedewind pieces together a believable argument which places the writing of the Hebrew Bible not in the Persian and Hellenistic periods (fifth through second centuries B.C.E.) but rather in the late Iron Age (the eighth through the sixth centuries B.C.E.).

Schniedewind does not seek to offer definitive solutions to the many mysteries surrounding the Bible but rather offers elucidation by posing the compelling questions of when was the bible written? Why was it written? And how did it become a book? He approaches these questions by exploring the role of written texts in ancient Israel. He explains how the dichotomy between the restrictive and the liberating nature of writing stratifies society and places the elite at odds with the common. Originally writing, Schniedewind argues, was seen as divine and as such was able to be manipulated by the elite for purposes of exercising control over those who did not understand it. In contrast, oral tradition was a medium for cultural continuity. Israel sang the songs of their ancestors and through a folk tradition common people preserved their egalitarian culture. In the late eighth century ancient Israel became centralized and literacy spread. The oral traditions were compiled and written down and literature preserved the idealized vision of the golden age of David and Salomon. In the time of Josiah, writing continued to spread to throughout the fabric of Judean society. Writing became a tool for the subversion of the centralized power of the government. Tension had always existed between the central palace and the rural elders, but the Deuteronomic revolution had given the rural elders a written, or rather an empowered, voice. That voice then fades in the time of exile and the darkness of the Persian-Hellenistic period sees an end to the creation of biblical texts but from out of that darkness, Schniedewind sees a faint growing hope.

Schniedewind's approach to his study is both scholarly and accessible. He invites the reader, guided by the author's vast background, to take a profound look at the co development of both ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible. Rooted in highly pragmatic theories, Schniedewind explores the socio-political contexts which produced a highly significant religious text. A reader of his work not only gains an appreciation for the historical background of biblical stories but also an appreciation of the historical development of those stories. By effectively contextualizing the development of the Hebrew Bible Schniedewind is able to convincingly explain the reasons why and reasons how ancient Israel was textualized.

Dr. William Schniedewind has mastered the age old question of who actually wrote the Bible. Not only does he delve the reader into this essential question for readers of the Hebrew Bible everywhere, but he effectively explains the entire Ancient Israelite culture. From the hatred and fear of the power of writing to the questioned authority of the author and Israel's beloved orality, Schniedewind builds case after case of more than sufficient evidence to prove every point. He uses effective persuasion in his writing and also splashes many pages with helpful illustrations and charts that give the reader the most vivid idea of what literacy and life was like in the Ancient Near East. Schniedewind clarifies such questions like whether or not Moses wrote the Torah, and if he didn't, why there is such a mass misconception. This book is a must read for any reader who wants to enhance his or her knowledge of the Old Testament and what really happened during this integral and mysterious time.

Schniedewind uses archaeology and the study of literacy to argue against leading theories of when the Hebrew Bible was written. Most scholars have followed Julius Wellhausen in adopting a documentary hypothesis that focuses on J, E, D, and P documents. A great many scholars also emphasize the Persian period as the time when most of the Bible was written. Schniedewind counters these scholars by pointing to the limitation of literacy to palace and temple up to the days of Hezekiah. Thus, J, E, and P were oral traditions and not written documents. Wellhausen's claim that P was the latest of the four is countered by pointing out that P material shows no sign of being aware of traditions being written rather than oral, whereas Deuteronomy is very clear that key religious teachings are in writing. The Persian period, he maintains, was a dark age when few books of the Bible were developed. Part of the archaeology that supports this point is the proof that Aramaic rather than Hebrew became the ordinary language in Jewish lands under the Persians.

Most of the Hebrew Bible, says Schniedewind, was written down from the eighth through the sixth centuries B.C.E., the period from Isaiah to Jeremiah, centering on the policies of Kings Hezekiah and Josiah. Archaeology indicates that Judah underwent extensive urbanization following the conquest of Israel by Assyria, so that literate elites from Israel migrated into Judah and brought royal archives and traditions with them. Thus Hezekiah's period saw an emphasis on trying to blend the traditions of Israel and Judah, which resulted in glorifying the united kingdom of David and Solomon as a golden age which Hezekiah hoped to recapture. There was an agrarian rebellion that put Josiah on the throne, leading to writings that demoted the influence of Israel and its transplanted elites. At the same time, literacy spread and literature flourished leading to "one of the most profound cultural revolutions in human history: the assertion of the orthodoxy of texts." (p.91) From that time onward there was a tension between the oral tradition and the written holy text.

Among the interesting points Schniedewind makes is how the story of the Ten Commandments differs in Exodus and Deuteronomy. In Exodus, the commandments are oral rather than written. "Somehow the story of the revelation in Exodus 19-23 seems unaware that the Torah is a text. This fact will become all the more remarkable when we see how later traditions will be obsessed with telling the story of the writing of the Torah." (p. 121) His analysis of the narratives in Exodus and Deuteronomy leads him to conclude that the tablets Moses received contained plans for the tabernacle rather than the Ten Commandments.

The tension between oral tradition and the written text becomes an important theme from the time of Josiah. Schniedewind points out that the Book of Chronicles was the first text to apply the term "word of YHWH' to the written Torah rather than to words spoken by prophets. He maintains that the priesthood which ruled during the period of the second temple championed the written text as holy and that the Sadducees and Essenes were movements which focused on the written text. But, he says, the Pharisees, early Christians, and Rabbinic Judaism emphasized a key role for the oral tradition.

This is a book that can be enjoyed by the general public as well as biblical specialists. Anyone interested in Bible study will find his analyses enlightening. His focus on the spread of literacy and the transition from oral to textual culture adds a significant dimension to study and understanding of the Bible.

"I believe the Bible is the best gift God has ever given to man. All the good from the Savior of the world is communicated to us through this book."-Abraham Lincoln. To many, the Bible is the word and gift of God. However, if this truly is so, then how was the Bible complied into a book? In his book How the Bible Became a Book, William M. Schniedewind uses many evidences and resources to tackle the issue of when, where, and how the bible became a book with the prime thesis being: Urbanization from an oral to a literary culture is the catalyst necessary for more widespread literary activity including the compilation of the Bible as a book. Because of such urbanization, more learned to read and write. No longer was writing confined within the walls of scribe school, nor was it only used within the palace for administrative services. Instead, the spread of literacy triggered the population to textualize what was supposed to be part of an oral tradition: songs, etymologies, and words of God etc. As Schniedewind states, "Orality and literacy were stages along the same road, whereas orality and textuality was the fork in the road". In order to further prove his thesis, I am going to write a synopsis about each chapter.

In Chapter one, Schniedewind stresses that we should not read the bible as book, but instead, realize that it is a collection of books and not the product of an individual author. The bible embraces the concept of communal authorship. Furthermore, it is in this chapter that Schniedewind begins to emphasize the fact that only few could read, and that the bible was written down largely in the eighth to sixth century BCE or between the days of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah. One of the points that Schniedewind restates over and over again is that the Bible was not written at one place or time.

Whereas chapter one gave a brief outline on the rest of the book, chapter two begins to dive into each component that lead to the textualization of the Bible. Once again, Schniedewind stresses the uncommonness of writing. Oral societies usually associate writing as something that is mysterious and supernatural. A more interesting fact in this chapter is that by changing a person's name, one can actually change a person's fate. Moreover, Schniedewind states that one is not saved unless their name was written down in the Book of Life.

Chapter three sketches out some of the important aspects of the development of writing both in the Near East and more specifically in Israel. In this chapter, Schniedewind reveals the history of writing: writing seems to have first developed in Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium, in connection with accounting practices of city-states, probably to meet the administrative and economic needs of Mesopotamia cities. The writing system was complex, and was largely confined to professional scribes. Similar to the first two chapters, he once again reemphasizes the purpose of writing was not for literary creativity, but for government administration. A more interesting fact in this chapter is that the Ugaritic language shows affinities to Biblical Hebrew language and literature.

Chapter four begins with the explanation of where the pastoral and agrarian Israelites originated. Like the three previous chapters, chapter four again emphasize that the beginning of the Bible is found in oral literature, and that the songs and stories were passed on from generations. An interesting section of this chapter was when Schniedewind states how the Song of Moses becoming part of the Book of Exodus. This text simultaneously preserves the oral tradition of ancient Israel and introduces the written prose narrative. Despite this gradual change, Schniedewind continues to believe that writing did not play an important enough role in early Israelite society to warrant writing down these songs and stories, proverbs and parables. That time, however, would come in the eighth century.

Chapter five mainly gives the background on Jerusalem and how it emerged as a powerful political center and was a by-product of the rise of the Assyrian empire. In the end, these changes would be the catalyst for the collecting and composing of biblical literature. In this chapter, Schniedewind also claims that it is to Jerusalem in particular that we must turn our attention to in order to understand how the Bible came to be a book. Towards the end of the chapter, the author also stresses the importance of King Hezekiah, the exile of the northern kingdom and the urbanization of the rural south. It is because of the exile and urbanization that initiated the motion of collecting and editing that resulted in the writing of the extended portions of the Hebrew Bible.

Chapter six explains the pivotal point of when literacy became commonplace, so much so that the illiterate could be socially stigmatized. The role of writing in society had dramatically changed since the days of Hezekiah. This dramatic change resulted in the transition from the oral and written traditions. However, the tension between oral and written tradition did not resolve quickly. Although the oral tradition continually reasserted itself, eventually it was subverted and supplanted.

Chapter seven mainly focuses on the Torah with its central figure being Moses. Using evidences such as the "scroll of covenant", Schniedewind concludes that the textualization of the Torah must have begun in the late seventh century BCE. Towards the end of the chapter, one of the most important idea that Schniedewind states is: The rise in literacy profoundly shaped the development of Judean culture in the seventh century and corresponded to seminal changes in the character of Judean religious practice, particularly the emergence of authoritative written text. Thus the written authority could become the basis of religious critique.

Chapter eight focuses on the after-math of the period when Babylonians invaded Judah and writing during the exile. Schniedewind does not believe that the Babylonian period in Judah was the social setting for intense and creative literary activity. Instead, the writing of the exilic period was an extension of writing by the state: written for and by the Judean royal family. In conclusion, he states that writing during the exile and the early post-exilic period was largely not a response to the Babylonian destruction and exile in a traditional sense. Rather, it was a return to the more traditional setting of writing in antiquity- as a production of the government.

Chapter nine basically concludes the transition from the oral tradition to the textualization of the Bible as a book. This chapter also deals with writing in the fifth through third centuries where little biblical literature can be placed in this period with certainty. His thesis in this chapter is to challenge the recent trend to date the composition of all biblical texts later and later. Finally, Egyptian Hellenistic rule brought peace and relative prosperity back to Jerusalem. For the most part, the Bible was no longer being written. Rather, it was being copied, translated, paraphrased, commented upon, and embellished in every conceivable way. Once again, this chapter concludes the transition from the oral tradition to the textualization of the Bible as a book.

Lastly, the epilogue summarizes the main ideas of all chapters.

All in all, I agree with Schniedewind's thesis that urbanization from an oral to a literary culture is the catalyst necessary for more widespread literary activity including the compilation of the Bible as a book. As an atheist, I view the Bible as a historical book recording all that has happened. However, this book allowed me to reflect upon the idea on how, when, and where the Bible originated. I've always taken for granted that the Bible was just the way it is now. However, after reading this book, not only did I learn more about the process of the textualization of the Bible, I also learned about the history of the countries that was related to the compilation of the Bible. I agree with Schniedewind's thesis because it is logical. He supported his thesis not solely based upon his personal opinions, but also in relation to the cultural aspects of the countries related to the Bible. Using such evidences, Schniedewind was able to create a thesis that is logical.

The book How the Bible Became a Book by William M. Schniedewind has many strengths and weaknesses. First of all, this book is extremely well researched. Every comment or thesis that Schniedewind makes is backed up by many scholars and detailed resources. From the amount and depth of the information that he presented in this book, it should be obvious to all that he knows the history and all background information very well. Furthermore, this book is also very organized where each chapter has its own idea and more importantly, each idea relates and supports his thesis. Because of this format, the book was relatively easier to understand simply because I could follow his argument chapter by chapter.

However, in terms of the weaknesses of this book, I believe that the cons outweigh the pros. Although I learned a lot from this book, it was definitely not an easy read. Because of the tremendous amount of information he includes in each chapter, it made it harder for me to follow his ideas within a chapter. In this book, Schniedewind digresses from his main thesis a lot, and to some extent, I feel like he was actually over-proving some of his ideas. For example, in chapter six, he spent three pages talking about the evidences found of writing: seals, weights, letter, graffiti etc. Although some may find this interesting, I believe that most would find it unnecessary. I understand that the evidences of writings are important, however, it would be sufficient to give a brief outline pertaining to each of the examples. This example is only one of the many digressions Schniedewind incorporated in the book.

I would recommend this book to all who have a genuine interest in the subject of how the Bible became a book. Although informative, this book may be a little too informative for those who are simply looking for an easy-read.