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Invented Knowledge: False History, Fake Science and Pseudo-religions

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Invented Knowledge by Ronald Fritze blends a wealth of historical facts and logical arguments to examine the basis of six major pseudo-historical myths. These pseudo-historical myths are frequently referenced in books, magazine articles, movies and other popular entertainment media but few educated Americans know many details about these stories or their underlying lack of evidence. Since these myths are largely ignored by our formal educational system, many readers might consider these stories to be legends that have some historical basis but Fritze argues convincingly that they should be considered as myths that have no historical basis.

The first myth discussed in the book is the myth of Atlantis. While many people have heard of Atlantis, few know many details surrounding this myth. Fritze describes the origins of the Atlantis myth in the writings of Plato (c. 347 BC) who reportedly heard the story from his grandfather who heard it from his grandfather. After Plato, several intellectuals including Crantor, Lopez de Gomara, Sir Francis Bacon, Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), Ignatius Donnelly, and Madame Blavasky perpetuated the myth of Atlantis over the next 2,500 years. Fritze's book introduces each of these characters and examines their claims about Atlantis, their possible motives for making their claims, and the scientific evidence or logic that conflict with these claims. Despite little supporting evidence, the myth of Atlantis continues to be perpetuated by movies, books, and TV programs today. Examples of recent works based upon the Atlantis myth include Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Atlantis: The Lost Continent, and Stargate Atlantis.

Each subsequent chapter in Invented Knowledge examines a different myth in a similar manner--describing details of the myth, revealing possible underlying motives, and summarizing the contradictory evidence. Chapter two examines the myth that explorers other than Columbus first discovered America. For example, it looks at the myth that a Welsh prince named Madoc first discovered America in the year 1170. Chapter three examines the Christian Identity movement myths that white Europeans are descendents of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, that Jews are descendants of Satin, and that other races are minions of the Jews. As such, the myth has been used to support racist beliefs that white Europeans are God's favored people and that people of other races should be conquered and perhaps destroyed.

Chapter four examines the Nation of Islam's myths that God first created the black man and that black men formed advanced civilizations that made many important scientific discoveries that were subsequently stolen by Greek and Roman (white) civilizations. These myths were used to motivate black men to rise up and overthrow their alleged domination by the white man. Chapter five examines two complementary myths that have been used as a foundation for some extremist religious cults. The two myths are: 1) extraterrestrials visited earth many years ago and 2) the end of this world is near. In this chapter, Fritze examines the writings of Immanuel Velikovsky who mingled a few facts from physics, astronomy, geology, history, and biology to assert that the earth was on a collision course with other planets (e.g., Venus), Charles Hapgood who asserted that the earth would self destruct from a shifting of the earth's crust, and Erich von Daniken who asserted that ancient astronauts visited the earth thousands of years ago and brought civilization to humanity.

Chapter six examines Martin Bernal's myth of Black Athena--that history incorrectly attributes the advancement of civilization to the Greeks (Aryan model) when it should have attributed it to people from Egypt and Phoenicia (black African people). This afro-centrist assertion, presumably based upon scholarly research was first published in 1987. It immediately attracted considerable attention and has led to hundreds of revisionist history papers, lectures, reviews, essays, and videos aimed at college students and social activists.

Overall, Invented Knowledge is a very entertaining and enlightening book. It provides a wealth of information about topics that frequently emerge in contemporary media but are largely ignored by academic historians. The information is presented in an organized and interesting narrative with lots of witty side remarks. If you read this book--you won't be disappointed.

Rather than actively debunking issues in pseudoscience, pseudohistory, etc., the author has taken a somewhat different approach in this appropriately-entitled book. He has selected six main topics that are beyond the fringes of conventional wisdom/orthodoxy, and has provided, in each case, a fascinating, detailed overview including: how the concept came about, mini-biographies of its principal inventors/proponents, the evolution of their ideas/movements, how and by whom they were opposed, what the issues/arguments were and where the matter currently stands. The topics selected - mainly pertaining to history, science and religion - are: the lost continent of Atlantis, the discovery and settlement of Ancient America, the Christian Identity movement, the Nation of Islam movement, the pseudohistorical writings of a few well-known individuals, and finally the Black Athena controversy. The writing style is very clear, friendly, authoritative, widely accessible and quite captivating. This well-researched and engaging book can be enjoyed by anyone. Those who are particularly fascinated by how pseudo-knowledge comes about, how it is defended and how it is dealt with by traditional scholarship will not be disappointed.

Fritze's "Invented Knowledge" is a useful overview of several different themes in pseudohistory. Not surprisingly, the book begins with Atlantis. In the 19th century, the theory of Atlantis was a novel idea that purported to explain the apparent connections between the old world and the new--it was edgy, but not wildly implausible given what was known at the time. Plate tectonics ultimately proved to be the better model for how the world actually worked, so Atlantis and its progency (Mu in the Pacific and Lemuria in the Indian Ocean) should have disappeared. But they didn't--a loyal cadre of devoted believers embellished the theory, turning Atlantis from a lost Bronze Age civilization into a hyper-advanced, crystal-driven world of high technology and magic. As Fritze carefully explains, Atlantis and other lost lands remain nonsense.

"Invented Knowledge" also explores a grab bag of odd theories about the origins of Native Americans and who (besides them, of course) "discovered" America. Gavin Menzie's "1421" and "1434" come in for scathing and evidently well-deserved criticism, along with plenty of other strange ideas about the First Americans. Other chapters explore the racist pseudohistory of the Christian Identity movement, and the equally racist beliefs of the Nation of Islam. The theories of Immanuel Velikovsky, Erich von Daniken, Graham Hancock and others concerning historical cosmic catastrophes, advanced ancient civilizations and extraterrestrial contact are thoroughly debunked in the aptly entitled "Professors Gone Wild."

The final chapter, on "Black Athena," is an interesting exploration of an academic debate about which I have only passing knowledge. However, it struck me as being a bit out of place in this book--the Black Athena books are controversial and pseudohistorical, yes, but small beans compared to Atlantis, "Chariots of the Gods," "1421," "Worlds in Collision" and "Fingerprints of the Gods."

Of course, Fritze focuses for the most part on the relatively tame silliness that emerges from the authors of popular and even scholarly books. The pseudo-academic discourse is often quite mellow compared to the applied weirdness that true acolytes come up with. For an entertaining look at the folklore of the fringe, see "Weird Science and Bizarre Beliefs: Mysterious Creatures, Lost Worlds and Amazing Inventions." For a discussion similar in spirit to Fritze's work, see "Archaeological Fantasies" (ed. Garrett Fagan).

Who is to say what is real history and what is false, faked, or otherwise bogus? The historian Carl Becker once famously wrote of "everyman [as] his own historian," suggesting that we all individually choose what to assign value to in the episodic past and we construct a usable history to satisfy ourselves. Mostly that is fine, but sometimes it takes strange turns. This book, by one of my graduate student colleagues of many years ago, explores how bizarre some of this construction of the past may become. It is an outstanding analysis of the strange and weird in history.

"Invented Knowledge" is mostly about conspiracy theories and concepts of supposedly "repressed" truths in human history. Fritze begins with a lengthy discussion of the possibility of a lost continent of Atlantis. It is certainly one of the most persistent of beliefs held by people of all times and places despite the lack of hard evidence supporting its existence. Fritze appropriately calls it the "mother of pseudohistory." Chapters follow on myths surrounding the discovery and settlement of ancient America. My personal favorite is the so-called Welsh Indians, a group supposedly led to America by Prince Madoc in the twelfth century which formed its own tribe. Many expeditions sought to find this group, and Lewis and Clark and others believed that Mandan tribe in the upper Midwest were the descendents of these pioneers. Of course, different populations reached America in different ways and there is much speculation and only modest hard evidence. Accordingly, it is easy for pseudohistory to emerge when evidence is minimal and conflicting.

Ron Fritze also expends considerable effort, two full chapters, discussing the construction of racist cosmogonies. His explanation of the rise of racist perspectives among both white and black separatists is illuminating and frightening. Those chapters make up the heart of the book and offer a fascinating analysis of radical subcultures in modern American society. Additional sections of the book explore the catastrophism of Immanuel Velikovsky, the ancient astronauts theories of Erich von Dänikan, the vanished of ancient ice age civilizations, and the "Black Athena" debate launched by Martin Bernal in 1987. That last chapter has the scintillating main title, "Professors Gone Wild."

The takeaway from "Invented Knowledge" is that while there is credible historical analysis on all of these subjects and respectable theories have been offered, that there is still are those who prefer pseudohistory predicated on poor sources, outrageous assumptions, unrealistic theories, and in some cases insane connections. There is not lack for promoters of these wild explanations, some of whom are clearly unhinged and some of whom are charlatans. In every case Fritze debunks the outrageous and offers legitimate explanations.

But does evidence and argumentation really make a difference to what one believes about the past? For many people it does. For believers in conspiracy and many of the weird ideas discussed here it probably doesn't. This leads to the question, who has the authority to decide what the history says? An old baseball joke is apropos here. Three umpires were discussing how they call balls and strikes behind the plate. The first said, "I call them as they are," a pre-modern, absolutist position. The second said, "I call them as I see them," a position reflecting rationality and modernity. The third opined in a fit of post-modern existential angst, "They ain't nothin' til I call them." It seems that this last perspective is the critical element in considering the stories told in "Invented Knowledge." Perhaps the reality of what happened does not matter all that much; the only thing that is truly important is the decision about its meaning. That may well be an intensely personal decision predicated on many idiosyncrasies and perspectives. I find that a fascinating issue to ponder. My thanks to Ron Fritze for raising these issues and exploring their meaning in modern America.

In 2002 Gavin Menzies published a book entitled 1421: The Year China Discovered America in which he claimed that a fleet of Chinese ships sailed around the world and visited America thirty years before Christopher Columbus was even born. The story of this amazing journey is told in detail in the book and it was such a commercial success that Menzies has now published a new book entitled 1434: the Year a Magnificent Chinese Fleet Sailed to Italy and Ignited the Renaissance. Although the author has profited greatly from his publications unfortunately, they not added anything to our knowledge of the past because they are in the realm of what Dr. Fritze calls in the title of his new book Invented Knowledge. Menzies' book is not based on any evidence that is convincing to professional historians and the evidence on which it is based is so unconvincing that formal complaints have even been made to librarians asking them to classify the books as fiction rather than history. The author of The Da Vinci Code, one of the best selling novels of our century, which claimed Jesus married Mary Magdalene, at least admitted his work was a work of fiction but it was based on an earlier work entitled The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail which claimed to be an accurate portrayal of the past. These recent books are two relatively harmless examples of how the general public can be misled by those who claim to be presenting an accurate picture of the past when in fact, they have little or no reliable historical evidence on which to base their conclusions. However, there are many more examples of Invented Knowledge, which have been very destructive. Some have inspired and justified a particularly malignant form of racism such as the Christian Identity movement and the Nation of Israel while other false understandings of the past have led to terrible acts of violence. The most blatant example is Nazism which justified its atrocities by embracing the myth of a pure blooded Aryan race and accepting a conspiracy theory about the Jews found in the so called Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
Invented Knowledge can clearly be very destructive and so we are especially grateful to Dr. Fritze for his carefully researched study of what he also calls pseudo history. He begins by examining the legends about the lost civilization of Atlantis which he calls the "mother of pseudo history" Beginning with Plato's initial description of a large aggressive island empire situated outside the Straits of Gibraltar in the Atlantic Ocean which was swallowed up by the sea as the result of earthquakes and floods Fritze traces the debate over Atlantis for over two and a half millennia. It is a fascinating story that illustrates how readily people can be duped to believe preposterous legends and how they were used by occult and spiritualist groups like Theosophy. Unfortunately fallacious beliefs about Atlantis were not just harmless speculation as the Nazis identified Atlantis as the original homeland of the Aryans. Chapter two, which includes a discussion of Menzies' publications investigates beliefs about pre Columbian exploration and colonization of America. Based partially on Dr. Fritzes earlier publication, Legend and Lore of the Americas before 1492, this is a delightfully entertaining chapter as the speculation about the background of Native Americans includes stories about Welsh Indians and the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel reappearing in the Americas.
While it is easy to laugh about the ridiculous beliefs that people seriously presented as history in chapters 1 and 2, the following three chapters include disturbing examples of the destructive potential of pseudo history and science. In chapter 3 the background and teachings of the Christian Identity movement are exposed and in chapter 4 Fritze investigates the origins and beliefs of The Nation of Islam. Chapter 5 begins by describing the March 1997 mass suicide of 39 men and women in the Heaven's Gate cult which was influenced by pseudo historical beliefs about visitors from outer space and catastrophism. Fritze devotes the remainder of that chapter to discussing the careers and beliefs of a group of recent pseudo historians whose publications sometimes reached the best seller list. They include Immanuel Velikovsky's theories about how the near-misses of the planet Venus influenced ancient history and Charles Hapgood's beliefs about an ice free Antarctica and a highly advanced ancient civilization which explored the continent before it was covered by glaciers as the result of a polar shift. Visits to the earth by ancient astronauts was the topic of Erick Von Daniken's and Zacharia Sitchin's books which, although based on highly suspect evidence, paid handsome dividends to the authors. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the works of Graham Hancock who drew on the works of the authors discussed earlier in the chapter and speculated about ancient advanced civilizations on earth that were destroyed by a global catastrophe. Fritze concludes his book with a chapter on the Black Athena controversy about the origins of Greek civilization illustrating how it is sometimes difficult to distinguish academic history from pseudo history.
Dr Fritze has written a highly readable and well documented book which exposes some serious misuse of historic and scientific evidence. Since people are so easily influenced by pseudo history and pseudo science Invented Knowledge is an important book especially because it is written by an established scholar who has carefully delineated how one can separate truth from fiction when dealing with evidence from the past.

Many titles exist that deal with topics of pseudo science, depending on the genre (of science) they fall into they have their stock of topics that are always discussed. If you read about health there is homeopathy, if you read about physics there is cold fusion, if you read about diet its Atkins / Carbs (though that one might not necessarily be pseudo science so much as generally not sufficiently researched, it certainly doesn't help that Atkins wasn't skinny, but i digress).

When you read about history (which is the area this book primarily comes under) you have Atlantis, and this book has that. Unlike most books that go into their own fallacy of attacking the character and how ridiculous they are, thus how ridiculous their (in fairness "out there") notions are. The problem being, although the proponents may be wrong about many things (even very clearly), that doesn't mean that they must be wrong about everything. This is somewhat sad for books on science that ignore evidence for the sake of attacking the person. Fritze doesn't do this, he is very fair and gives ample of surrounding evidence which explain how these strange believes were instituted, and although he deals with the bizarre situation, for instance of land bridges that were going left, right and center from everywhere to everywhere raising the question of why they didn't just fill in the ocean, but doesn't ridicule so much as deconstruct and make you see.

The other treatment for instance was the settlement of America, and although Gavin Menzies (author of 1421) makes an entry and repeat appearance on the topic you find out about the story behind the story, not just derogatory comments. In fact in this particular instance i kept waiting for a final death blow that would do just that, and it never came. Fritze moves through the talking points and explains their background and why they came about and what's wrong with them, and as such you have to certainly respect the man.

The other things i really loved about the book is that the topics (with the exception of Atlantis) had not been done to death in other books, and where there was the issue of it being a typical contender, it was treated with such depth and respect that it was a new experience. THIS may however not apply to you - I have not read so much on pseudo history as i have on pseudo science so, your mileage may vary.

Check out the index page and decide from there if these are topics you have seen being done to death, and go from there.

This is a fantastic book, which showed and explained a great deal of topics i was not fully aware off, and Fritze did it in a respectful and scholarly way that is second to none. If there is a criticism to level (and i am wavering between 4 and 5 stars at this stage) it is that the book is short, at under 300 pages even in hard cover it seems like it is a slightly expensive book (~US$20), but then it isn't a fast read, because you will want to think about what you've read, though I did get through it fairly quickly... That said, i feel it was money well spent (final decision is 5 stars after all).

Ronald Fritze, who has already published on such matters to acclaim, has now produced in this book a classic work in the field of skeptical critique of pseudo-history. Although it will naturally not replace existing treatises altogether, it will become an indispensable general source and one of the first `ports of call' for researchers and students in this area.
As has become the trend, Fritze surveys not only current fringe ideas and skeptical commentary on them but the entire post-Enlightenment period. He deals with almost all the major fringe trends of the last two centuries (and with ideas which once were mainstream but have now been debunked or forgotten) and with the critiques offered by predecessors of contemporary sceptics. But he is also very much up to date; for instance, he rehearses the entire vexed and complex story of `Kennewick Man' (mysterious ancient human remains found in Washington State in 1996), including the latest available legal decisions and provisional academic conclusions. (To summarise: with support from postmodernist/anti-scientific thinkers and at times from the relevant governments and legal systems, Native American activists such as Vine Deloria - like their equivalents in Australia - have persuaded many `indigenous' people a) that their ancestors were indeed `created' where they now live, as their traditional myths relate, rather than forming part of any general diaspora from East Africa such as has been revealed by scientific archaeology; and b) that all ancient human remains found in their lands, even anomalous and hence potentially very important remains such as those of KM, must be those of their own forebears and therefore need to be protected from study as sacred, and indeed ceremonially re-buried. Opponents of these irrational ideas, including leading critics of postmodernist excesses such as Alan Sokal as well as mainstream scientific archaeologists, have won the latest round of legal exchanges over KM; but given the current political climate it is unlikely that this matter is finally settled.)
A large proportion of the non-standard material surveyed by Fritze is in fact nonsense (whether or not that was apparent when it was produced), and he critiques the fringe without compunction. On the other hand, he is conspicuously fair-minded. Indeed, in some cases, e.g. in commenting on mainstream critics of the Velikovskyan major-planet-catastrophist & chronological-revisionist movement, he arguably goes beyond this (though some of these critics, notably Carl Sagan, clearly were themselves unfair at times). He examines the socio-cultural and quasi-academic background tendencies involved in the development of each tradition of non-standard work, and acknowledges such strengths as may be found in non-standard amateur material. Fritze does not mock gratuitously, recognising that most fringe writers are sincere (if not adequately informed or trained). But he is far from humourless, and his writing is engaging and perspicuous as well as scholarly.
Fritze's chapters deal with: Atlantis and other `lost continents'; the diffusionist pseudo-history of the Americas; `racist cosmogonies and pseudo-history' (two chapters); catastrophism (and chronological revisionism); and Afrocentrist pseudo-history. There is, almost inevitably, a stronger focus on American issues than on those arising elsewhere in the world; for instance, little is said about fringe views of European (pre-)history. But, allowing for this, there are few outright omissions, and these largely involve individual thinkers rather than entire strains of non-standard historical thought. Obvious examples include William McGlone and his colleagues (perhaps the most rational members of the `American epigraphist' tradition offering diffusionist accounts of the history of the Americas) and Anatoly Fomenko (the best-known proponent of major chronological revisions involving the last two millennia). Some of these authors are very important; but, as noted below, only so much ground can be covered in any one book of reasonable size as determined by the publishers.
As a skeptical historical linguist, this reviewer might have liked to find in this book a somewhat greater focus on linguistic matters. I include here non-standard amateur philologising or etymologising (ideas on the origins of languages and individual words), speculative epigraphics (the identification and decipherment of texts or alleged texts, e.g. the specifically linguistic work of the diffusionist pseudo-historian Barry Fell), `out-of-place' spoken or written languages, theories concerning the conspiratorial concoction of languages or language data, etc. Linguistic `evidence' is often adduced by pseudo-historians in support of their wider theses, and more generally the details of language data often furnish key evidence in the discussion of historical and archaeological theories, fringe or mainstream. Fritze does refer in places to such matters (Helena Blavatsky's concocted language `Senzar', speculations on linguistic relationships in early North America, the purported use of Welsh in the Americas as a result of Prince Madoc's supposed voyage, the allegedly Phoenician Paraiba Inscription, Zecharia Sitchin on Sumerian, the outrageous philological-cum-etymological proposals of the British Israelites, etc); but perhaps not as much as might be hoped, and with very few actual linguistic details.
On the other hand, specialists in other disciplines might make similar points about gaps in the treatment of their own favoured subjects; and one cannot expect one scholar's grasp to extend equally to all relevant disciplines. And, in an admittedly general book such as this, only so much detail can be given and only so much ground covered. (Sheer errors of fact and cases of awkward wording are very few indeed.)
Overall, the work cannot be recommended too highly to all with an interest in these matters: active researchers/writers, skeptics generally, or those who might otherwise be tempted to accept fringe ideas. It is, as Thucydides famously said, a possession for ever.

All opinions are NOT equally valid..Myths are NOT the same as legends...There is no substitute for scholarship, or for hard facts.

As the distinguished scholar Ronald Fritze has illustrated in this refreshing and long-overdue work, contemporary society continues to be duped by an amazing cast of pseudo-scientists, pseudo-historians and dangerous pseudo-religion fanatics espousing "truths" that simply have no basis in fact. Just when it seems as though political correctness has completely seized the halls of academia, Dr. Fritze has presented us with several "inconvenient truths" of his own that challenge some of the great academic charlatans of history. Here he exposes the fakers for what they are and levels a scholarly critique against the societal consequences they have wrought. For the intellectually honest this is a breath of fresh air. For the intellectually challenged, or those for whom opinion is more important than fact, this book will undoubtedly touch a nerve.

With impeccable research and an amazing scholarly grasp of world history, Dr. Fritze lays bare the truth about the pseudo-history and pseudo-science that are the foundations of radical Afrocentrism, the Nation of Islam, the mythical kingdom of Atlantis, Ufology and other pseudo-historical, pseudo-scientific and pseudo-religious phenomenon.

With clarity and exhaustive documentation, Fritze shows how radical extremist movements threatening the fabric of contemporary society have arisen from the most questionable and contemptible forms of poor scholarship, myth-making and ignorance. Exposing Nation of Islam founder Wallace D. Fard for the confidence man that he was-- and laying bare the unpleasant fact that Fard once reportedly confessed to the Detroit police that the whole movement was a scam to bilk poor, illiterate, gullible African-Americans out of their money-- is not likely to ingratiate Dr. Fritze with that racist movement.

Nor is his scholarly expose' of the fraudulant, invalid and intellectually dishonest scientfic and historical "research" anchoring contemporary extreme Afrocentrism likely to persuade many blissfully ignorant Americans that this revisionist black history is completely without merit. Such an outlook, such a "philosophy" of race, has consequences. What is left unstated in this volume, but which is so starkly apparent, is that this is precisely the same fraudulent and extreme Afrocentrism that has most shaped the political outlook of the current U.S. President-- a President who, without the slightest hesitation, insults the white European Prime Minister of England one week and then bows down in tribute before an Arab King the next.

Dr. Fritze assails equally radical pseudo-religions on the right in this well-balanced text, notably the adherants of Christian Identity and various right-wing racist offshoot paramilitary extremist organizations.

I hope Dr. Fritze continues to explore these themes in a second volume for as he acknowledges, there is plenty of pseudo-science, pseudo-history and pseudo-religion to go around, and a truly exhaustive study would run to several volumes.

This masterpiece is destined to become a classic in the field of cultural and intellectual history. Bravo.

This is a fascinating book about half a dozen specific subjects that have been taught as history but the author in a meticulous examination explains why they are fabricated stories. I gave this book three stars only because those six subjects were of little personal interest to me. I bought the book to see what could be written about them and found that the author does have a lot to talk about. Some readers might not want to have long explanations about well-known stories, widely accepted as speculations. Most of us do not believe that "Atlantis" was a true story and even if it were, have little interest in it. As for the "Christian Identity" movement, even Christians don't think this movement is on the right path. However, should the day come when adherents of such stories turn them into mainstream views, this book will become an important source of contrarian resistance. This book may merit four stars for readers who have a personal interest in the subject.

Ronald Fritze's book on pseudo-history contains more meat than most books on true history. It is worth reading just to watch Fritze makes full use of the story behind the story to keep the reader entertained. As the cases of pseudo-history unfold, the reader comes face to face with the eerie question of whether pseudo-history reveals more about the deeper recesses of the human psyche than true history. Permeating the style and substance of this volume is the same emphasis on accuracy without formality that mark Fritze's earlier books.