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Medieval Philosophy (Dover Books on Western Philosophy)

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This book presents a basic introduction to medieval thought for someone who wants to know the basics of the most important philosophers and time periods. It is not meant for someone who wants a more in-depth discussion or who already has an introduction to the field. The book is well-written and gives the reader a basic idea of each philosopher's system.

Father Copleston, S.J., (1907-1994) wrote this book in 1961. Readers should not confuse this shorter book with the two volume set he wrote re his voluminous HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY is a clearly written introduction to Medieval/Scholastic philosophy and theology. The "unintiated" will be impressed with both the topic and Father Copleston's written expression.

Father Copleston started this book with a brief history of early Catholic Christianity. The earliest Christians were not philosophers, but they had to write apologia to defend themselves from whom they considered "pagans" and the Roman authorities if only to survive as a religious community and for physical survival. Hence early Christian apologia had to rely on the Greek and Latin languages and intellectual disciplines to "make their case." Some of the early Christian apologists wrote defenses of their views against other Christians and pagan "oppressors." Some of these men included Justin Martyr (c. 100 AD-c. 160 AD). Father Copleston also included some of the arguements of St. Ignatius of Antioch (c.50-107)who, by the way, was one of the first if not the first, to describe the Early Church as the Catholic Church.

Father Copleston made effective transition to the "Early" Middle Ages." He commented on St. Augustine (354-430)who wrote, among other titles, THE CITY OF GOD. This work was originally written against pagans, and the work was a detailed explanation that life after death should be the goal rather than the corrupt City of Man. Father Copleston effectively explained the historical situation during St. Aguustine's lifetime, and, as bad as the situation was for the declinning Roman Empire, the City of God should be the ultimate goal of early Christians. In other words, the disintegration of the Roman Empire was not reason for dispair. Boethius (480-520)was mentioned in this section of the book, and Father Copleston explained Boethius's work titled THE CONSOLATION OF PHILOSOPHY whereby Boethius considered philosophy as a guide to revelation which was an avenue of thought for one facing death.

Father Copleston wrote a careful precis of early Medieval thinkers. The chapter (s) devoted to the Early Middle Ages included Eregina (815-877) whom some Medieval historians consider the first philosopher in Europe since St. Augusitine. Eregina speculated that thinking and knowledge of God were somehow combined. While Eregina was critisized for being a pantheist, his work influenced later Medieval thinkers.

One of the problems that Father Copleston discussed was that of reason and revelation. Catholic authorities knew that reason and logic had their place in explaining The Faith, but the concern was that the "wrong" use of reason and logic could undermine the The Faith. St. Anselm (1035-1109)helped solve this problem by attemtping to "bridge the gap" between reason and revelation. St. Anselm wrote two influential works titled MONOLGOIUM and PROSLOGIUM to explain how logic and reason could explain revelation, The Faith, and even mysticism. Father Copleston clearly showed that Medieval historians are right when they consider St. Anselm The Father of Scholasticism.

Circa the time of St. Anselm, Medieval universities were started and coexisted with the monastic schools. The latter were simply not large enough to accomodate the influx of students. Some of the Medieval unversities and their approximate dates of origin were Notre Dame (1150),Bologna (1158), Paris (c. 1200), etc. The dates indicate when these universities were chartered rather than first started. As the undersigned wrote elsewhere, the curriculum consisted of the Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic) and the Quadrivium (Plane Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy,and Music). Advanced studies included Medicine, Law, and Theology-the latter being called The Queen of the Sciences.

Among those who taught at these universiteis was Peter Abelard (1073-1142)whose work in logic and philosophy established a basis for later studies. Abelard wrote a text titled SIC ET NON (YES AND NO)as a book dealing with apparent contradictions of the Bible, Church Councils, Church Fathers, etc. This book was designed to assist students to logically resolve these problems and was not written to undermine The Faith. Father Copleston was clear that Abelard experienced trouble because, basically, he "toyed" with The Holy Trinity which St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)feared could undermine revelation. Father Copleston also cites Peter Lombard (1100-1160) who wrote THE FOUR BOOKS OF SENTENCES which was was a theology text designed to solve theological contracitions.

While Father Copleston's book dealt mostly with Catholic thinking, he included a short chapter re Jewish and Islamic scholars whose influence in Medieval Europe cannot be underestimated. Copleston cited Avacina (980-1037) and Averroes (1128-1198). Both men examined Greek thought, and their work re Aristotle entered Europe via the University of Salerno and Spain. The European Catholic Scholastics did not refuse Islamic studies, and St. Thomas Aquinas referred to Averroes as The Commentator-The Commentator on Aristotle. Jewish scholars got "honorable mention." Copleston evaluated Maimonides (1135-1204)who attempted to make THE TORAH and Judism more reasonable in lieu of the influence of Greek thought.

Father Copleston's treatment of St. Thomas Aquinas (115-1274), while brief, was succinct and clear. Father Copleston was clear that while St. Thomas Aguinas accepted Aristotle's work, The Angelic Doctor (St. Thomas Aquinas) did not think Aristotle as infallible. Note should be made that St. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), who was St.Thomas Aquinas' best known teacher,also did not think Aristotle as infallibe. St. Thomas tried to reconcile reason and revelation. Reason could lead men to God by examination of the natural/physical world. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, reason could not fully explain God's existence. Therefore, revelation had to given careful attention. Logic and reason could explain God via Creation. Revelation was explained via the Bible, Church Fathers, Church councils, etc.

To argue that St. Thomas Aquinas influeced subsequent Scholastic Philosophy is an understatement. He had an angry debate with Siger Brabant (1235-1282)who argued that revelation had a "twofold truth"(relgion and reason). Father Copleston stated that according to St. Thomas Aquinas, truth was One. If reason and the Bible/revelation appeared to disagree, this was due to the limitations of men's understanding rather than any actual contraditions.

The Francicans who originated about the same time as the Dominicans reacted to much of St.Thomas Aquinas' thinking. Some of the disagreement was due to the fact that St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Albertus Magnus were Dominicans. The Franciscans included St. Bonaventure (1221-1274)who argued that will and mysticism were the road to understanding The Faith. Duns Scotus(1265-1308)also presented similar arguments as St. Bonaventure in that intuition and will took precedence over reason. This is not to say that St. Bonaventure and Duns Scotus dismissed reason. The Francisan William Ockham (1288-1348)exceeded both St. Bonaventure and Duns Scotus. Ockham argued that experience and intuition were crucial and the shortest means of understanding revelation. Ockham thought that reason and logic were too laborious and a waste of time. The simpler method is known as "Ockham's Razor." The shift in Medieval Philosophy emphasized the exact meaning of language rather than reason and concepts which is why some of these men were known as Nominalists.

While Father Copleston was a Jesuit and a proponent of Thomism, he did not neglect the Medieval mystics. One cannot write about Catholic Philosophy and honestly neglect mysticism. Some of the mystics were Thomas Kempis (1380-1472) who wrote THE IMITATION OF CHRIST, and Meister Eckert (1360-1420). Both ment thought that Ockham and St. Thomas Aquinas tried to prove too much and neglected the "Inner Spark" and intuition and self refletcion. What this section of the book emphasized was that while there were serious differences between Medieval philosphers, the study was a continuous history with no actual abrubt break.

Father Copleston devoted the last section of the book to Medieval political thought. Father Copleston stated that St. Augustine regarded the state as a necessary evil due to men's fallen nature. On the other hand, St. Thomas Aquinas saw the state as an agent to promote "the common good" and to improve men's material and spiritual well being. One political thinker that Father Copleston examined was Marcellius of Padua (1275-1342)who thought the Catholic Church and the Pope had too much political power and contributed to the instability of Medieval Northern Italy. Marcellius' argued that Church political influence accelerated problems in this area when the disputes could be more easily resolved by the German monarchs. What could have been mentioned is that the Catholic Church had suffered first from German interference earlier during Medieval History.

Father Copleston's book titled MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY is well written and informative. Readers may notice that this reviewer first reviwewed Father Copleston's more compresenive two volume work. This book reviewed above should have been reviewed first. The reason it was not reviewed first is that the undersigned could not locate it in his jungle of books, monographs, etc. The undersigned highly recommends MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY. The work is very informative.

James E. Egolf