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Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South (Galaxy Books)

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Albert J. Raboteau originally wrote 'Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South' as an expansion and derivation of his doctoral dissertation, little expecting it to become a classic. This updated version, twenty-five years after its original publication in 1978, includes Raboteau's response to some of the reactions he received over time from various audiences. Citing his friend and mentor Sydney Ahlstrom's prediction, the recovery of African-American history as a subject in its own right also served to revitalise the subject of American religious history, as African-American history cannot be told without a great part of the religious traditions, and the religious history of America cannot be told adequately without incorporation of the African-American experience.

Raboteau writes in terms of recovering voices, particularly for this study, the voices of slaves preserved in narratives from the past. This idea of recovering voices is a strong theme in liberation theologies, and applies in important ways both to secular and religious history (as well as present-day practice). Not only the voices, but also the actual events need to be recovered - as Raboteau points out, before the 1820s, far more Africans made the trans-Atlantic journey to the Americas unwillingly than Europeans of all nationalities and religions. The idea of European development of the New World obscures this important fact.

But just what was slave culture? Was this something distinct and unique? Were there multiple slave cultures? Raboteau, speaking in context of the religious, could not ignore the political, and argued that there were vital and creative means of continuation of African cultural influences, often overlaid with Christian and European influences, that provided what he calls a pre-political solidarity that, while not always directly challenging the institution of slavery, provided the kind of foundation needed for questioning of authority needed to break the mindset of the institution of slavery.

Raboteau claims that his primary intention in writing this text was the passing-on of unwritten traditions, oral traditions no longer heard; this goes hand-in-hand with the desire through historical methodology to increase wisdom along with the spiritual task of reflecting upon a tradition that stands a continuing challenge to the complacency exhibited by most of Christianity (not to mention individual Christians).

With regard to the task of preserving oral traditions, Raboteau's text is very good. He incorporates hymns and songs, poems and stories, historical accounts and academic analyses of various sources for the preservation of this important history. Raboteau includes pieces from original African languages as well as adaptations by those Africans already in the Americas. He describes in good detail various practices, such as the ring shout, as well as belief structures. For example, the preservation of elements of African gods and goddesses (and attendant practices) was often stronger in Latin America/Roman Catholic countries than in the Protestant-oriented United States; Raboteau discusses the various possible reasons for this, which include the greater possibility of syncretism and cross-identification of practices, but also the fact that, after a time, the majority of the North American slave population was native-born, whereas in Caribbean and South American locations, there was a constant influx of new arrivals from Africa directly.

Raboteau also discusses the paradoxical situation of Christianity using conversion as a justification for slavery. In the modern world we find it nearly incredible to think in these terms, but one of the rationales for permitting the enslavement of whole peoples was to convert them to the Christian faith - there was also the occasional idea (Azurara, for one) that there were not only spiritual benefits to the slaves, but also the contact of the slaves with Western civilisation was by itself a better state than that in which the people had lived as free persons. There was for a time a difficulty in permitting slaves to become Christian, for as Christian they would have claim on greater expectation of fair and equal treatment; colonials had more economically-oriented goals in mind, and often objected to any religious ideas that might jeopardise their profit margins.

Raboteau's description of the public institutions and the 'invisible institution' practices is intriguing. The public churches formed often with controversy within and outside the communities. The 'invisible institution' existed often as a forbidden aspect; slaves might be members of both the independent black church groups or congregations that were racially mixed (Raboteau mentions that some such congregations might have far more slaves than masters in attendance), but also participate in worship gatherings at night in secret locations, risking severe punishment to do so.

By the time of the Civil War, the slave culture was thoroughly Christianised throughout the South, according to Raboteau. Not all slaves were Christians, and Raboteau points out that the secular/sacred clash often present in the modern-day culture was present even the slave cabins, where secular music that provided antecedents to rhythm and blues would sometimes compete with the more religious-oriented calls to worship.

Raboteau points out that one of the criticisms of his text over the years has been that it is a bit 'too Christian', that its context and overall method looks too much in that direction. Raboteau accepts this criticism, as well as the critique that the voices of women were not as prominent as they might have been, given their importance in the preservation of slave culture and religion. For a work early in the field, these are gentle criticisms that in fact point to areas where, even to this day, further research and writing needs to be done to preserve the historical record.

Raboteau's book is an important milestone in the recovery of lost tales and voices. For any who want a full understanding of American religious history, this book is a must.

Some books are classics; "Slave Religion" is THE Classic in this genre. Raboteau, America's foremost scholar on African American religious history, weaves copious first-hand quotations with insightful, riveting commentary to provide a tremendous foundation for understanding Christianity among the enslaved African Americas.

Chapter after chapter, "Slave Religion" opens deeper and deeper layers of understanding. As you read, you sense Raboteau transporting you back directly into the historical experiences. His writing is so thoroughly researched as well as so adeptly penned, that scholar, student, and lay reader alike can equally enjoy and benefit from it. Peerless.

Reviewer: Bob Kellemen, Ph.D., is the author of "Beyond the Suffering: Embracing the Legacy of African American Soul Care and Spiritual Direction," "Soul Physicians," "Spiritual Friends," and the forthcoming "Sacred Friendships: Listening to the Voices of Women Soul Care-Givers and Spiritual Directors."

Slave Religion is a valuable text. The author does an excellent presentation of the experiences of our ancestors prior to their departure from Africa and their arrival on the plantations. I use this text in a course I teach, The History of the Black Church. The author is to be commended for his research.

Slave Religion is a valuable text. The author does an excellent presentation of the experiences of our ancestors prior to their departure from Africa and their arrival on the plantations. I use this text in a course I teach, The History of the Black Church. The author is to be commended for his research.

Albert J. Raboteau's "Slave Religion" examines the "Invisible Institution," slave religion in the Antebellum South. When Africans arrived in the New World, they were torn from "the political, social, and cultural systems that had ordered their lives" (p. 4). Raboteau explains that one of the few areas in which slaves were able to maintain their culture, linking the African past with the American present, was their religion. African religious beliefs were transformed or adapted to American Christianity. In some parts of the Americas, Raboteau contends, "the gods of Africa continued to live - in exile." (p. 5). Despite the cruelty placed on American slaves and without family and kinship systems, they were still able to develop, create, and assemble a rich and unique culture in the United States. How did they survive and adapt religion to fit their situation? This is what Raboteau attempts to answer. Much of black religious life was "hidden from the eyes of the master" and occurred in the secrecy of the quarters. The slaves combined their African ethnic religion, Muslim religion, and Christianity to form what is called the "Invisible Institution." Slaves were secretive because it was necessary for survival. Through prayer meetings, spirituals, ring shouts, slave preaching, and the conversion experience, slaves were able to adapt African rituals and beliefs to Christianity.

African American religion began out of necessity; the captured Africans needed something to sustain them during the middle passage. Once they arrived, slaves needed someone to administer rituals for special events, such as birth, marriages, illness, death, and other events that required a ceremony. Slave religion started with a heavy influence from a variety of African ethnic groups and European Christianity and has remained the same for years. Raboteau explains, "perhaps the most obvious continuity between African and Afro-American religions is the style of performance in ritual action. Drumming, singing, and dancing are essential features of African and Afro-American liturgical expression" (p. 35). "Even as the gods of Africa gave way to the God of Christianity, the African heritage of singing, dancing, spirit possession, and magic continued to influence Afro-American spirituals, ring shouts, and folk beliefs" (p. 92).

One way in which slaves adapted was to "steal away," attend secret prayer meetings apart from those of the masters' preachers who told slaves "obey your master." Of course, slaves faced severe punishment if caught. To avoid detection from Plantation owners, slaves would use wet rags and quilts to diffuse noise, hold meetings in the woods, and use an upside down pot to hear if someone was approaching. These secret meetings were very important to the slave community. Additionally, the slave preacher (whose sermons were based on the Bible) also had competition for authority with the conjurer, a proponent of the supernatural. Here, Raboteau explains, conjure and Christianity were not so much antithetical as complementary. "Conjure could, without contradiction, exist side by side with Christianity in the same individual and in the same community because, for the slaves, conjure answered purposes which Christianity did not and Christianity answered purposes which conjure did not" (p. 288). Conjurers were considered and respected as a valuable necessity in the slave community and another example of how slaves molded with Christianity to serve their own circumstances.

The conversion experience itself was another means for slaves to adapt Christianity to their situation. Even though conversion stood at the center of the evangelical Protestant tradition, slaves increasingly made the conversion experience their own. The typical conversion experience was preceded a period of anxiety over one's salvation which lasted for days or even weeks. The normal context for sinners to become seekers was the mourners' bench, or anxious seat, at prayer meetings and revivals. Conversion experiences are very personal experiences, but have some similarities. The pattern of a feeling of sinfulness, then a vision of damnation, and finally, an experience of acceptance by God and being reborn or made new was usually common.

Slave spirituals also contributed to the slaves' religious life. The singing was accompanied by an ecstasy of motion, clapping of hands, tossing of heads, and shouts. The spirituals would be shouted out in what was called a ring shout. An individual's experience would become part of the group. One person's sorrow or joy became everyone's through song. Raboteau states that it is difficult to believe that a slave sang of suffering and toil without reference to his life in slavery. In attempting to make sense out of their individual lives, the slaves found meaning in their religion. Spirituals formed the soul of communal worship in the quarters.

Slave religion allowed slaves to assert and maintain a sense of personal value. At the same time, religion became an expression of social and cultural solidarity. African folk traditions and Christianity came together and formed something new adapted to the slave condition. As Raboteau concludes, "in the midst of slavery, religion was for slaves a space of meaning, freedom, and transcendence" (p. 318).

Prof Raboteau's book is clearly written and highly informative. He has an excellent sense of how to present his material in an engaging manner, and a sharp critical faculty. I enjoyed reading this book very much - as I also enjoyed his more recent books, A FIRE IN THE BONES and A SORROWFUL JOY, both of which I would recommned.

The book arrived faster than expected with minor notes in the margins and good quality.