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Social Systems (Writing Science)

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First published in 1984, this book is the theoretical program for Luhmann's following works, his series about the subsystems of society: Science, Law (already translated into english), Art, Economy, Religion and Politics, each "as a Social System". The final synthesis is made in the monumental The Society of Society (published in 1997, not yet translated).

"Social Systems" presents a turning point in Luhmann's work: for the first time, he places people outside of societies' systems. They suffer the consequences of society, but they are not part of it. This has been said to be anti-humanist (or to represent an "autopoietic turn"); to me, it appears to be quite the contrary: People are more than their religions, legal systems, political convictions or scientific theories: they are people. Of course, the distinction between people and their creations leads to interesting problems, and Luhmann is the first to acknowledge that - and in this book, he thinks them through.

Another fundamental postulate of Luhmann's is that each of the subsystems of society works with a binary code, for example true/false for science, legal/illegal for law.

His work is influenced by an enormous amount of reading in each of the disciplines he discusses; however, the underlying epistemology is mostly inspired by radical constructivism as proposed by Maturana/Varela or Heinz von Foerster.

In the construction of his theory - which has continued to change in nuances after "Social Systems" - Luhmann tries to avoid tacit assumptions: he always says what he's doing, says which other possibilities exist and have been tried. His style invites other interpretations, i.e. the use of other distinctions which might enable us to see more interesting and useful things.

This, together with a fine sense of irony and a good dose of scepticism make Luhmann the most popular and widely read contemporary philosopher and sociologist in Germany.

The drawback: Luhmann's style sometimes sorrily lacks the polished elegance and simplicity of anglosaxon writers. Don't be discouraged: one of the 21st centuries greater intellectual adventures is waiting for you.

You could read this book ten times and glean new depths of meaning each time.

Luhmann has been disparaged for putting people outside of social systems and for refusing to say his theory is true. As to the first point I will simply say that Luhmann does not claim individual consciousness or psychic systems do not greatly influence social systems but rather says that individuals are not members of social systems (his definition of social systems). This leads to the second point. It may be useful when reading Luhmann to think of social systems as a construct or an observed pattern. He points to pattern he calls a social system. Rather than arguing as to the definition of a social system it may more useful to see Luhmann's use of the term social system as a pattern he and others observe. There is not an ontological argument as to what a social system IS. Luhmann mentions how any social system reduces the infinite complexity of the environment for the sake of communication. He recognized that his observations themselves are of reduced complexity and therefore attributing truth to them is not useful. My own interpretation is that he is pointing at a moon that cannot be described or even "understood" and some are arguing about what is doing the pointing rather than the direction it points. Evaluate this book based on how useful its way of thinking is and you may find a gold mine. If you find yourself arguing for or against the truth of what he is saying you may be missing the point.

This book is not an easy read. A good introduction to Luhmann may be "Luhmann Explained" by Moeller. I think he misses the above-mentioned points but it is more digestible and gets to the meat of much of Luhmann's work beyond "Social Systems".

First of all, one have to recognise that Luhmann's thought is somewhat "dazzling" for the newcomers, but if you insist to understand and unveil this author's theory you will be introduced to a new perspective for "seeing" and comprehending the modern society. No doubt we live in hypercomplex society and we cannot be aware of all the possibilities of communication and processing of information. Luhmann is a sociologist who succeeded in the tremendous task to overcome the stagnation of the sociological thinking, which could no more explain completely and clearly what modern society has become. Departing from the idea of the social hypercomplexity in modern times and the need to reduce it by means of "building" a theory (which he himself calls "supertheory"), through a functionalist theoretical approach (functional social subsystems) - subsystems that work in an operational closure based on a binary code (positive x negative), but at the same time having a cognitive "openness" - this theoretical framework allow the subsystems to evolve in an autopoietic manner. The idea of "autopoiese" he gets from the biological theory from Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, originally applied to living organisms and psychic systems.
This is the most interesting point of Luhmann's theory: the interdisciplinary perspective. He mixes theories from cybernetic epistemology (Heinz von Foerster)and mathematics (Spencer Brown) to permit the observation of social systems through the study of mathematical forms, second order cybernetics and constructivist epistemology. This book, although difficult to read (you must read it twice, thrice ...) provides you with new powers of observation and a sharp capacity to see modern society as it really is today, not as we wish it to be. This book will make you see that our society (=social systems) is not based on the old European conception of society as a sum of individuals (in this sense it is now a nonhuman society!). Our society nowadays is built upon communication. Luhmann says that only communication can communicate!! If you want to be able to communicate in a efficient way inside each subsystem of modern society you'd better ready this book. After reading this and being able to minimally understand its powerful theoretic message, you will never more think society the (old) same way: like it or not!!
I also highly recommend "The reality of the mass media", another intriguing book from Niklas Luhmann. Be prepared to see the news media and the enternainment "system" in a completely different point of observation.
The interesting about Luhmann's theory is: love it or hate i it, you'd rather read it and think about it - it is the future!!!


Ulisses Schwarz Viana (Brasilia - Brazil)

N. Luhmann makes a thorough job in the large area of topics which he touches. Although the main reference of the book is the explanation of social and psychological systems (systems of conciousness), by the way he clears many of the secret prejudices or simply forgotten paradigms in modern science, explaining hereby otherwise not understandable phenomenons. Required reading for epistemologists, too. (Wolfgang Sohst, Berlin)

I kind of stumbled upon this book. I'm a doctoral student in philosophy and the more I read the more amazed, and dissatisfied, I am that more people aren't reading it. It strikes me as being the most important work of German theory since Heidegger's Sein und Zeit, although I guess there could be other comparable gems lurking in the library.

This is the most developed Luhmann's book. Sadly Luhmann has not been very popular in the USA and UK. Nevertheless, his theory is a key for understanding the current society.

Niklas Luhmann's *Social Systems* was one of the more challenging works of sociology to be published in the 20th century. Challenging because of Luhmann's pointedly gnomic writing style, sure, but even more so because Luhmann anticipated the disuse that sociology would fall into at the turn of the century and radically reformulated its main concerns to avoid irrelevancy in the new age of Empire. More than Habermas, his chief theoretical rival, Luhmann achieves a grand synthesis that forces those leery of totalizing analysis to rigorously and thoroughly conceive the conditions of social order.

The concepts of "hermeneutic" approaches to understanding human life and agency, beloved of those who find social facts and their attendant "reality-based community" distasteful, are here carefully submitted to a systemic critique. The target of the analysis: the complexity of social arrangements, considered not as externalizations of individual minds but as consisting of purely self-organizing arrays of information. This means dispensing with easily-observed but theoretically intractable phenomena like interaction systems in favor of conceiving society as implemented through communication: a system sensitive to formal constraints upon it and capable of working within those constraints by evolution, self-observation and other complexity-reducing gambits.

The systems-theoretical machinery employed in this effort, partially derived from George Spencer-Brown's widely derided *Laws of Form* but more importantly inspired by the researches of Maturana and Varela, may disappoint: but what is undeniable is the task posed by Luhmann, of understanding society on its own terms. Whether or not Luhmann truly succeeded in formulating "society without people", the level of detail his argument reaches sets essential tasks for all forthcoming social theory. Highly recommended for all those with a serious interest in sociology; more casual readers interested in concrete consequences of the theory may enjoy Luhmann's *Love as Passion*, also from Stanford University Press.