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28 of 28 people found the following review helpful:
5.0 out of 5 stars
A brilliant exposition by a great thinker., February 14, 2004
In Bergson's "Two Sources," the famous french thinker applies his relational methodology and metaphysic to an analysis of religion and morality. Bergson himself was certainly very careful about how he presented his own religious sentiments, and this book continues to show that care, coupled now with his meticulous attention to phenomenological detail. Hence, this is not a proselytizing sermon, but a close analysis of phenomenological *sources* of religious and moral sentiment.
This is a later work of Bergson's, and as such, it might not be the best introduction to his work. One can see a great deal of Bergson's previous metaphysical thought operating in the background if one knows what to look for. To catch up on that background, one might want to read _Time and Freewill_ or _Matter and Memory_, for instance.
However, its also not clear that one really needs that background to appreciate this book. For one thing, this volume gives one of the clearest examples of Bergson's methodology that I have encountered (in my admittedly limited studies). This method has come to be known as Bergson's "qualitative calculus" (QC, a term coined by Pete Gunther). The QC has certain obvious similarities with Hegel's dialectic: a phenomenon gets analyzed as a product of two tensional poles which define a spectum of relations between them. But the differences are also manifest. The poles, for Bergson, have none of the ontological status of Hegel's objective idealism. Nor are they so much Ideal Opposites, as they are the two ends of a relational spectrum. Bergson's relational approach is not built around a sharp, black/white oppositional structure the way Hegel's is (or at least appears to be in some readings).
The two poles for Bergson are, in this instance, what might be called "habit" and "inspiration," which lead to, respectively, static and dynamic structures. These structures are rarely if ever encountered in their pure forms, and as such the two poles are the abstracted ideal elements of a phenomenological analysis. Chapter one of _Two Sources_ focuses on morality, and gives the initial development of QC structures that Bergson will then apply throughout the rest of the book. Chapter two takes religion in its static, habit based form, and further delves into this structure along the lines of Bergson's QC. (Here, again, we see the debt to Hegel, where each stage of the dialectic leads to a deeper analysis.) Chapter three takes religion in its dynamic phase, and the final chapter summarizes and offers conclusions.
Once again, this is not a book looking to convert the faithless, nor is it preaching to the choir. It is a careful analysis along the lines of James' _Varieties of Religious Experience_. (By the by, for those who don't already know, Bergson and James were frequent correspondents, and admirers of one anothers work.)It may not be the best introduction to Bergson's thought, but it is certainly worthy of reading.
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5 of 5 people found the following review helpful:
5.0 out of 5 stars
about as deep as it gets, August 20, 2008
Here is a work of such scope that it seems very difficult to summarize. One of the main ideas is that the human intellect was evolved as a tool for survival through problem-solving. This tool worked so well that it threatened to become self-defeating, as individuals began to realize they could use their intelligence to take advantage of their fellow beings. This development posed a risk to society as a whole, whose preservation is nature's primary aim. Thus, regulating mechanisms; duty, obligation, morality and religion are supplied to limit intelligence to its role of serving society as a whole. This is of course a very incomplete thumbnail sketch of ideas which Bergson develops in great depth. He advances concepts to explain the mechanism of how this might have happened, and goes on to draw conclusions about what he thinks it might mean for the future of mankind. Though not overtly religious, his presentation shows a belief in the possibility of mystical revelation as a further advancement of the intellect. Bergson presents this not as an article of faith, but as a concept based on his ideas of the dynamic nature of the evolutionary process. Whether or not it is entirely accurate in its conclusions, I believe the book merits 5 stars as a brilliant treatment of the derivation of fundamental elements of human behavior.
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1 of 1 people found the following review helpful:
3.0 out of 5 stars
Open philosophy or closed mind?, June 29, 2009
Today, the French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859-1941) is more or less forgotten. However, he was an important person during most of his lifetime, and even something of a celebrity. He met the US president Woodrow Wilson and participated in the creation of the League of Nations, heading its cultural and educational branch. In 1927, Bergson was awarded the Nobel literature prize by the Swedish Academy, ostensibly because of his philosophy books, but (I guess) really as a form of general recognition. During World War Two, when France was occupied by the Nazis, the fascist Vichy regime offered to exempt Bergson from the anti-Semitic laws (he was part-Jewish), an offer the aged philosopher turned down, no doubt as a protest against anti-Semitism and Nazism. However, some people still believe that Bergson converted to Catholicism in secret during the war.
The most well known book by Bergson is, of course, "Creative Evolution". Being something of a non-conformist, I decided to start by reading Bergson's last and most controversial work, "The Two Sources of Morality and Religion", published in 1932 (in English in 1935). Bergson's philosophy took an explicitly religious and mystical turn with the publication of this book. It's difficult to label Bergson, but pantheistic mysticism might be the best description. At the same time, he is very sympathetic to Christianity, in particular Christian mystics.
Unfortunately, Bergson's book is very difficult to read: he takes a hundred pages or more to get to the point, and when he finally makes it, he ruminates the same point for another hundred pages! Frankly, "The Two Sources" could have been half as long. The work also feels like an intellectual roller coaster ride. Sometimes, Bergson hits the nail squarely on the head. At other times, he sounds nebulous or...well, religious.
Bergson believes that what we call "morality" are really two entirely different phenomena. They can and do blend, to the extent that we don't recognize their distinctiveness in daily life. Yet, the two kinds of "morality" have different origins. None of them come from human reason. "Closed morality" (in-group morality) is a product of nature and regular evolution. It's a system of societal sanctions and obligations, enabling (and sometimes forcing) humans to co-operate and survive. Philosophers often imagine that this kind of morality is eminently reasonable, can be deduced from categorical imperatives, and that somehow it's intrinsically motivating. Not so, says Bergson. "Closed" morality works only because it has the sanction of society behind it, a sanction the individual has more or less internalized. That's why it looks "reasonable" to him, but without the material sanction, humans would be egoists. This is obviously a criticism of Kantians, but Bergson also waxes sarcastic over utilitarians, at one point saying that "only a subtle utilitarian philosopher" would refrain from being egoistic in a world where reason isn't backed up by societal sanctions.
But there is also an "open" morality, a morality that sees beyond the in-group, transcends its limitations, and reaches to embrace all of humanity. This morality has no connection to reason either. Nor is it derived from "nature" as we usually understand the term. It's source is spiritual, mystical and religious. The ultimate source of "open" morality is the élan vital, the life force that permeates the entire cosmos. I must admit that I never really understood what exactly this élan vital is supposed to *be*, and yet it was a central tenet of Bergson's philosophy almost from the start. In "The Two Sources", at any rate, the concept is clearly religious in character. Élan vital (sometimes translated "vital impulse") is the later Bergson's equivalent to Brahman. In opposition to Hinduism, however, Bergson imagines the pantheistic deity to be active rather than passive. The vital impulse creates matter, takes hold of it, and forces it to evolve into more and more complex forms. There is no preconceived plan, so in that sense the entire universe is "open". Suffering is inevitable, but so is creativity, freedom and the unexpected - and, in the end, some kind of joyful life after death (although Bergson says very little about this). As civilization progresses, "closed" and "open" forms of morality are combined, but unless humanity creates a world community, "closed" morality will always remain somewhere. Bergson points out that Western nations nominally believe in "the brotherhood of man", even on the morrow of destructive wars! The process towards a completely "open" morality isn't completed.
Bergson also makes a distinction between "closed" and "open" religion. This part of the book is quite boring, as Bergson strides into comparative religion and anthropology, speculating about the exact origins of this or that superstitious belief. His main point is that "closed" religion is nature's response to human intelligence. It's essentially a way of constraining intelligence. Without the superstitions and taboos of "closed" religion, humans would feel lost in the immensity of space, not to mention the fact that we would constantly fear our own deaths. Also, we would become egoists without "closed" religion lending sanction to "closed" morality. Thus, "closed" religion is a psychological and sociological phenomenon, and hence unreal. Bergson calls it absurd, hallucinatory, and so on. By contrast, "open" religion is the religion that bases itself on mystical experiences, and justifies "open" morality.
The high point of both "open" morality and "open religion" is Christianity, especially the Sermon on the Mount and various Christian mystics. Bergson is more critical of Buddhism. As for Hinduism, he is sympathetic to Ramakrishna and Vivekananda, but believes that they represent a recent phase of Hindu evolution (he is right in Vivekananda's case). In a footnote, he actually mentions Evelyn Underhill, pointing out that she appropriated some of Bergson's own ideas!
Bergson further believes that "open" morality and religion become influential due to the charismatic power and example of strong personalities. Thus, it's not simply mystical experiences that moves the crowds to accept "open" morality. Apparently, it can be spread by external means as well, but in Bergson's opinion, this is not group pressure, but rather a kind of instinctive sympathy which makes men follow strong, saintly persons. For rather obvious reasons, this part of Bergson's work is very hard to swallow. Charismatic leaders, as we all know, can have quite another effect on people than moral ones!
But there are other problems with "The Two Sources" as well. Bergson apparently didn't believe that "normal" Darwinism could explain why some humans would be morally open to out-groups, and hence felt the need to postulate a religious explanation for this phenomenon. But why should this be a problem? Humans are intelligent. Surely an intelligent creature can transcend the "closed" morality of the in-group? Wherein lays the mystery? There is a mystery only if you have a very deterministic, sociobiological view of what evolution might accomplish: "We can't teach altruism, for we are born selfish". (With apologies to Richard Dawkins!) Bergson's work also suffers from internal inconsistencies. He rejects teleology, seeing it as determinist, and instead favours the unbounded freedom to create of the élan vital. But he also regards humans and social insects (!) as the end points of evolution, the one having perfect intelligence, the other being endowed with pure instinct, both being social. This implies that there is a kind of teleology after all, although our author graciously allows that ants and bees might be an alternative goal of creative evolution. (Overall, Bergson seems fascinated by bees and ants.) There is also an obvious tension between the superstitions of the "closed" religions, which Bergson almost contemptuously rejects, and his own "open" religion, which might also be accused of serving purely psychological and sociological needs, as when Bergson writes that although there is a lot of suffering, there is also hope that it will cease one day, etc.
Finally, I note that while Bergson was condemned by the Catholic Church during his lifetime, this edition of "The Two Sources of Morality and Religion" is published by Notre Dame Press, and has a positive blurb from the magazine Catholic World (and also from the Protestant Christian Century). It seems his pantheistic mysticism has been "opened" after Vatican II! Still, I don't think Bergson is very influential today, although Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Sri Aurobindo may have said something similar. But Bergson himself seems to have been forgotten.
"The Two Sources of Morality and Religion" probably doesn't contain the solution to the world riddle. Open philosophy or closed mind? That is the question.
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