“The citizen must not live a mechanical or commercial life. Such a life is not noble and it mitigates against virtue. Men must have leisure to develop their virtue and for the activities of a citizen” - Aristotle (4th Century BC)
“Those few, who are attached to no particular occupation themselves, have leisure and inclination to examine the occupations of other people. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776)
“A hundred despots would surely be as oppressive as one. Elective despotism was not the government we fought for.” - Thomas Jefferson (1785)
“By enlarging the empire of liberty we provide new sources of renovation should it’s principles at any time degenerate in those portions of our country which gave them birth.” - Thomas Jefferson (1805)
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Gordon S. Wood’s ‘Empire of Liberty’ was published in 2009, a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. It is the fourth in the series, conceived in the 50’s, but available 17 years after the third. The first and the second are still forthcoming. I don’t know how it took a half century to produce this book and expected something extraordinary. It is and can also be used as a door stopper on windy days. It covers the years after the American Revolution to the end of the War of 1812, roughly following it’s predecessor, ‘Glorious Cause’ by Robert Middlekauff in the vaunted pursuits of life, liberty, happiness and private property. A high minded sense of Republican virtue aspired to the ancient Greek and Roman city-state models of moral and civic duty.
Old Guard
The book depicts tensions between Republicans who argued for separate state rights and Federalists who foresaw an increasing need for a centralized government. After the war old guard graduates of Harvard and Yale, favoring a loose confederation, were confronted by new populists from the business class seeking to hold public office. The gentlemen plantation owners in the South, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, as well as upper class lawyers John Adams and Alexander Hamilton in the North, saw danger in local legislatures led by businessmen looking after their own interests. Paper money and easy credit devalued assets and undermined the authority of the gentry by creating inflation and debtor relief.
New Guard
By the 1780’s state legislatures were seen as a much of a threat to individual liberties of elites as the British governors before them. Jefferson complained about rights infringed and James Madison joined him. Revolutionaries of the 1770’s had not foreseen an electorate restricting their individual freedoms. The thinking was only a king or president could tyrannize. Now the practice of democracy itself seemed to endanger Republican ideals. Benjamin Franklin wrote that “all men were created equal in freedom, not in ability and character”. By the late 18th century a growing middle class, often wealthy, sometimes educated, challenged leadership by the gentry. In 1787 Madison began to advocate a national government to check state powers.
Constitution
The middle class attacked the Constitutional Convention as an attempt to curtail their emerging power. Aristocrats argued that only gentleman of leisure, unencumbered by selfish goals, could lead fairly. Nevertheless the Constitution was passed in 1788. Federalists Hamilton and Washington, to be elected first President, were intent to create a unified nation and retreat from ideals of limited government. The First Congress of 1789 organized the Executive and Judiciary branches, House and Senate rules and select committees to streamline endless debates. It was decided Senators would be elected by state and Representatives by district. Madison was the leading voice in the House and Adams in the Senate, who was also Vice President.
Amendments
The first ten Amendments contained in the Bill of Rights were written by Madison, a defensive measure against the Anti-Federalists who wanted to scrap the Constitution for a more decentralized one. By reverting powers not specifically given to federal government to the states it helped diffuse their objections. Hamilton favored a President and Senate for life, but Madison was adamantly opposed. Advised by his Vice President Adams, Secretary of State Jefferson and the Treasury Secretary Hamilton, Washington embarked on a campaign to promote the Union, tour the states and plan a monumental capital. Many House Representatives felt the Executive branch too monarchical in style. In some ways it was modeled after the British system.
Conflicts
Adams, who would be the 2nd President, saw no problem in hereditary positions and found them a mark of a developed nation the US should become. This put him into conflict with the majority of Republican politicians, but he was not alone. Monarchy was supported by some Senators but were fought by Jefferson and Madison, future 3rd & 4th presidents. While the Senate confirmed cabinet members the President was empowered to fire them without Senate consent, insisted on by Madison to insure executive power. Departments of War, State and Justice were tiny under Washington. Hamilton’s Treasury was powerful and reported directly to Congress. He studied Britain’s success in banks, stock and debt markets, and military matters.
Money
In a brilliant first year Hamilton authored plans to create the national bank, mint, customs and tax agencies, buy state war debts, reissue them as federal bonds and stimulate industry. He and the Federalists didn’t recognize the large role small business would play in future economic expansion, instead focusing on the traditional top down relations of the great patrons to working classes. They turned their attentions to building an army to protect northern territory from the British and in the south from the Spanish. To raise money Federalists tried to auction individual plots to settlers. This didn’t work and vast areas were sold to wealthy speculators whose goals were to become landed gentry and gain entry into national politics.
Land
Due to squatters and swindlers, Indians were pushed farther west each year. Georgia was ceded by natives for rights to Alabama and Mississippi. As soon as Washington signed the treaty illegal sales of land began there too. Army reprisals for raids led to buildup of troops, enticing western settlers to the government, but excise taxes on whisky, tobacco and sugar drew comparisons to British levies. Faced with an insurrection 15,000 troops were sent to Pennsylvania to demonstrate the government’s resolve. Political infighting continued between the Republicans led by Jefferson, and Federalists by Hamilton. The dispute between plantation owners in the south and business owners in the north threatened to split the nation.
Parties
By the time Washington gave his Farewell Address in 1796, France had its revolution, inspiring celebrations among Republicans. Washington, leader of the Federalists warned about political parties dividing the nation. Adams was elected President and Jefferson Vice President by delegates, although they were from different parties. The rift widened between Federalists, who saw themselves as gentlemen but called aristocrats by the Republicans, many of whom were wealthy landowners themselves, like Jefferson and Madison. James Monroe, another southerner who would become the 5th president, aligned himself with Republicans and against Federalist power. All three were plantation and slave owners suspicious of losing their rights.
Federalists
America made a trade treaty with Britain following the French Revolution, declaring their neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars with Austria, Prussia, Spain, Italy and Britain. The US had a treaty with France for mutual defense but determined France was the aggressor. As France seized American ships, refused diplomatic missions and threatened war Republicans defected to the Federalist camp, except for Jefferson a devoted Francophile. France annexed Belgium, Germany and installed Dutch, Swiss and Italian puppets. In fear of French attack and a Republican fifth column, the 1798 Aliens and Sedition Acts suppressed immigration, speech and voting. Madison fought Hamilton’s efforts to expand the military as unconstitutional.
Republicans
Reaction to the loss of liberties made Federalists a minority party. The threat of war with France subsided as Nelson sank the French fleet and power turned over to Jefferson in 1800. Aaron Burr was elected Vice President and killed Hamilton in a 1804 duel over a political rivalry. Jefferson pursued policies to shrink government and expand territory, in the Louisiana Purchase, Indian assimilation or removal, Lewis and Clarke expedition and international trade. Republicans remained in power with Madison succeeding to the presidency in 1809-1817. Federalists had a brief comeback in 1812 opposing the war with Britain, over maritime disputes and the Northwest Territory south of the Great Lakes, but were dissolved as a political party in 1835.
This is a straight political history. If you’re not interested in the wrangling of the early US Congress and Presidents you might avoid it. It’s not a particular pursuit of mine but it increased my knowledge of the ‘Founding Fathers’ and the social milieu they operated within. Gordon S. Wood repeats himself too often to my liking. He’s clearly an expert on this topic, and I felt like I enrolled in a graduate course as an undergraduate. It’s also not a military history of the War of 1812, although it is covered well from a domestic perspective of the attitudes and disagreements of the Americans towards the British. It seems like a love-hate relationship, Federalists leaning toward love and the Republicans falling somewhere between fear and loathing.
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Customer reviews
James Madison vs the ‘sage’ of Monticello
Reviewed in the United States on November 9, 2019
First off, understand Wood is enthralled by TJ and twists and glosses over sources to make him out as something he’s not. The lessons of history for today (pg 9).In the 1780s Madison had his doubts about the moral capacity of the people, that ordinary people had to have sufficient “virtue and intelligence to select men of virtue and wisdom” or “no theoretical checks, no form of government, can render us secure.”Substitute the somewhat archaic “virtue” for integrity and in one paragraph Madison can sum up Trumpism.If a larger number of the enfranchised population possessed Madison’s virtue, DJT would have been kicked to the side of the road long agoNow the question is will we wake up before the slide to monarchy in all but name is complete?And no little irony that the patron saint of the ‘militia’ crowd is Thomas Jefferson.
Reviewed in the United States on November 9, 2019
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