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Foolproof: Why Misinformation Infects Our Minds and How to Build Immunity Hardcover – March 21, 2023

4.5 out of 5 stars 128 ratings

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Winner of the 2024 Harvard Goldsmith Book Prize • Winner of the 2024 Nautilus Book Award • A Next Big Idea Club Must-Read • A Financial Times Best Book of the Year • One of Nature’s best science picks • One of Behavioral Scientist’s Notable Books of 2023

Informed by decades of research and on-the-ground experience advising governments and tech companies,
Foolproof is the definitive guide to navigating the misinformation age.

From fake news to conspiracy theories, from inflammatory memes to misleading headlines, misinformation has swiftly become the defining problem of our era. The crisis threatens the integrity of our democracies, our ability to cultivate trusting relationships, even our physical and psychological well-being―yet most attempts to combat it have proven insufficient. In Foolproof, one of the world’s leading experts on misinformation lays out a crucial new paradigm for understanding and defending ourselves against the worldwide infodemic.

With remarkable clarity, Sander van der Linden explains why our brains are so vulnerable to misinformation, how it spreads across social networks, and what we can do to protect ourselves and others. Like a virus, misinformation infects our minds, exploiting shortcuts in how we see and process information to alter our beliefs, modify our memories, and replicate at astonishing rates. Once the virus takes hold, it’s very hard to cure. Strategies like fact-checking and debunking can leave a falsehood still festering or, at worst, even strengthen its hold.

But we aren’t helpless. As van der Linden shows based on award-winning original research, we can cultivate immunity through the innovative science of “prebunking”: inoculating people against false information by preemptively exposing them to a weakened dose, thus empowering them to identify and fend off its manipulative tactics. Deconstructing the characteristic techniques of conspiracies and misinformation, van der Linden gives readers practical tools to defend themselves and others against nefarious persuasion―whether at scale or around their own dinner table.

35 illustrations

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From the Publisher

Insightful, convincing, instructive reading. Kirkus Reviews
You will never loos at your social media feeds in the same way again. Angela Saini
Iam so glad we now have this book.  There is nothing else like it. Robert B. Cialdini

Editorial Reviews

Review

"..[Prebunking] is probably our best strategy for winning the misinformation wars."
The Washington Post

"[Van der Linden] powerfully analyses why everyone is susceptible, how falsehoods spread, & how to 'prebunk' misinformation and 'inoculate' ourselves & others against it".
Nature

"If you are interested in being inoculated against disinformation, be sure to get this book [Foolproof]"
Gale Anne Hurd, Executive Producer The Terminator, The Walking Dead, & The YouTube Effect, via Twitter

"Important lessons for leaders and communicators"
— Lindsay Kohler, Forbes

"[A] must-read for those of us interested in resisting the spread of disinformation. [
Foolproof] highlights the need for vigilance and the importance of developing immunity against it . . . A timely and valuable resource."
—Dale Hartley, Psychology Today

"Van der Linden's book expertly lays out strategies for counteracting misinformation."
—UNDARK

"For quite a while, we've needed, in one handy place, high-quality straight information about the low-quality crooked information inundating our lives. In the nick of time, [
Foolproof] provides that straight information about the origins, workings, and consequences of misinformation/disinformation-infused messaging . . . I am so glad we now have this book. There's nothing else like it."
—Robert B. Cialdini, New York Times best-selling author of Influence and Pre-Suasion

"This brilliant book vividly illuminates the challenges of countering misinformation, showing how human psychology can make us vulnerable to manipulation and conspiracy theories. Van der Linden's analysis would be utterly depressing, were he not to provide a set of powerful evidence-based 'antigens' designed to protect us from false claims. They have never been more needed."
—Sir David Spiegelhalter, author of The Art of Statistics: How to Learn from Data

"Mis- and disinformation have caused a worldwide infodemic, potentially crumbling democracies and eroding our fundamental trust in one another. This outstanding and easy-to-read summary of the science, offered by the foremost scientific authority on the subject, is essential reading for us all."
—Mitchell J. Prinstein, chief science officer of the American Psychological Association

"A fascinating, in-depth investigation into the complex landscape of misinformation . . . You will never look at your social media feeds in the same way again."
—Angela Saini, author of Superior and the Patriarchs

"An insightful and forensic examination of why our brains entertain disinformation — and the remedies that can protect us all from its real-world harm. For everyone who messages me asking how they can speak to someone who has fallen victim to online conspiracies — this is the book for you!"
—Marianna Spring, BBC Disinformation Correspondent and author of Among the Trolls

"Sander van der Linden is one of the world's leading experts on combating misinformation, and
Foolproof is the ultimate handbook for navigating — and fighting back against — the tsunami that threatens to drown us in bullshit. This book will give you the best strategies for building immunity against fake news, propaganda, and conspiracy theories."
—Jay J. Van Bavel, coauthor of The Power of Us

"Bringing the psychology of misinformation to life,
Foolproof... outlines exciting techniques for protecting ourselves and those we care about. One of the smartest and, ultimately, most optimistic books on the subject I've read."
—Claire Wardle, cofounder and codirector of the Information Futures Lab, Brown University

"[A] well-researched, psychologically astute book . . . and a powerful argument for the effectiveness of delivering a small dose of misinformation in order to inoculate against a major infection...Insightful, convincing, instructive reading."
Kirkus (starred review)

"Thoroughly researched and lucidly written, [
Foolproof] is a standout guide to one of the world's most pressing social issues."
Publishers Weekly (starred review)

About the Author

Sander van der Linden is a regular advisor to governments and social media companies on fighting misinformation. His research has been featured in the New York Times, Rolling Stone, and elsewhere. A professor at the University of Cambridge, he lives in Cambridge, UK.

Product details

  • Publisher ‏ : ‎ W. W. Norton & Company (March 21, 2023)
  • Language ‏ : ‎ English
  • Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 368 pages
  • ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 039388144X
  • ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0393881448
  • Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.25 pounds
  • Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.5 x 1.3 x 9.4 inches
  • Customer Reviews:
    4.5 out of 5 stars 128 ratings

About the author

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Sander van der Linden
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Sander van der Linden, Ph.D., is Professor of Social Psychology in Society and Director of the Cambridge Social Decision-Making Lab in the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge. His research looks at how people process (mis)information, how it spreads in online networks, and how we can most effectively prebunk and inoculate people against false information. He leads national consensus reports on the psychology of misinformation and serves on the World Health Organization's (WHO) infodemic working group. He has won numerous awards for his research on human judgment, communication, and decision-making, including the Rising Star Award from the Association for Psychological Science (APS). He co-developed the award-winning fake news game, Bad News, which has been played by millions of people around the world and he regularly advises governments, public health authorities, and social media companies on how to combat the spread of misinformation. He is ranked among the top 1% of highly cited social scientists worldwide and has published over 150 research papers. He frequently appears on international TV and radio and his work is regularly featured in outlets such as the New York Times, Rolling Stone, NPR, and the BBC. He has been described by WIRED magazine as one of “15 top thinkers” and by Fast Company Design as one “four heroes who are defending digital democracy online”. Before joining Cambridge, he held academic positions at Princeton, Yale, and the LSE. He is the author of FOOLPROOF: Why Misinformation Infects Our Minds and How to Build Immunity (WW Norton/HarperCollins, 2023).


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Customer reviews

4.5 out of 5 stars
128 global ratings

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Customers say

Customers find the book insightful and well-researched, with one noting how it synthesizes decades of research. Moreover, they appreciate its readability, with one customer mentioning it's suitable for both young and older readers. Additionally, the writing style receives positive feedback, with one customer describing it as easy to follow.

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13 customers mention "Content"13 positive0 negative

Customers find the book insightful and interesting, with one customer noting it synthesizes decades of research.

"My 15 year old son had to read this book for school. He found it quite interesting and thought-provoking. A good read!" Read more

"...The author has exhaustive analyses of the power of misinformation in social media, and its effects on vaccine denial and hesitancy, climate change..." Read more

"I had read this book for a research paper in class. I thought it was informative and fun to read, however I found that it was a little political at..." Read more

"Great book for understanding the source of information affects what you receive, and hence believe...." Read more

3 customers mention "Readability"3 positive0 negative

Customers find the book fun to read, with one mentioning it is suitable for both young and older readers.

"...He found it quite interesting and thought-provoking. A good read!" Read more

"...I thought it was informative and fun to read, however I found that it was a little political at times which I didn’t find fun." Read more

"...Good read for young and old(er)" Read more

3 customers mention "Writing style"3 positive0 negative

Customers appreciate the writing style of the book, finding it easy to follow and well thought through.

"...The author is meticulous and comprehensive, and the text is clear...." Read more

"The parallel between bio-based and info-based viruses is well thought through. It nicely builds sensitivity and insight into ‘manipulation’...." Read more

"...The writing style is easy to follow and the arguments are backed by solid evidence...." Read more

Fantastic book about why people believe misinformation!
5 out of 5 stars
Fantastic book about why people believe misinformation!
This is probably the best book I've read on the topic - very accessible overview. The writing style is easy to follow and the arguments are backed by solid evidence. I also appreciated the focus on solutions (Van Der Linden's games are hiliarious) and I like the non-political approach he advocates for. The experiments are fascinating and I learned a lot about the brain and how to spot misinformation online. If you want to know more about the psychology behind why people believe in conspiracy theories, I highly recommend this book.
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Top reviews from the United States

  • Reviewed in the United States on March 13, 2025
    My 15 year old son had to read this book for school. He found it quite interesting and thought-provoking. A good read!
  • Reviewed in the United States on August 25, 2023
    This book is an impressive academic achievement, synthesizing decades of research (much of it by the author) and the history of current events relating to misinformation. The author has exhaustive analyses of the power of misinformation in social media, and its effects on vaccine denial and hesitancy, climate change denial, and political gaslighting. The author is meticulous and comprehensive, and the text is clear. The book is densely packed with information, and it may be more than some people want. There were a few times where I got lost in the intricacies of implications of studies and it got a bit tedious, but I can't blame the author for being comprehensive. The book is as much about the evolution of the authors research and thinking as it is about the growth and consequences of misinformation. If you want a one stop shop for all matters concerning misinformation, this is a good bet. I'm a psychology professor and some lay readers may wonder why the author is so careful about replication and effect sizes and such. It simply reflects current concerns in psychological research. The research on pre-bunking is promising, but I've seen some reports recently suggesting limits to its efficacy. I suspect we are in an race between new forms of misinformation and ways of combatting them. If you want to know where we've come and where we are, I recommend this book.
    5 people found this helpful
    Report
  • Reviewed in the United States on March 12, 2024
    I had read this book for a research paper in class. I thought it was informative and fun to read, however I found that it was a little political at times which I didn’t find fun.
  • Reviewed in the United States on September 16, 2024
    Great book for understanding the source of information affects what you receive, and hence believe. Even the cover-design begins telegraphing the nature of this book. Question what you read and the news you hear. Discusses the role of online information, social media, etc.
    One person found this helpful
    Report
  • Reviewed in the United States on April 4, 2023
    This is one of those books that looked so important and up my alley that I pre-ordered it months in advance. It did not disappoint! Van der Linden is an academic at Cambridge who not only studies misinformation and its propagation, but also developed and tested specific tools to counter it. Throughout the book, he uses an immunological metaphor of using weakened versions of fake news to inoculate the mind against disinformation. His lab has developed a taxonomy of "key techniques that underpin the production of nearly all fake news," which he calls the Six Degrees of Manipulation, or DEPICT: "Discrediting content using deflection and denial strategies; using Emotional appeals to manipulate people’s feelings; Polarizing groups of people by driving two camps further apart; Impersonating people and organisations online; floating Conspiracy theories to cast doubt on the mainstream narrative; and Trolling people by falsely amplifying existing tensions, sowing societal discord, and manipulating public opinion."

    Lest you think that misinformation, disinformation and conspiracy theories are not a big deal, here's a sobering statistic: "at minimum, a solid third of the population consistently endorses conspiracy theories." I like his CONSPIRE tool for recognizing conspiratorial thinking: "Contradictory, Overriding suspicion, Nefarious intent, Something must be wrong, Persecuted victim, Immunity to evidence, and Re-interpreting randomness."

    Some concerning results: Correcting misinformation doesn't change beliefs at all. And even a little bit of misinformation is enough to unravel the effects of a major campaign of corrective science communication (e.g. around climate change). Moreover, micro-targeting a susceptible audience (think Cambridge Analytica and Russian interference) is 5x more effective than generalized outreach.

    What *does* work? His data show that teaching people how to recognize the *format* of disinformation — "technique-based inoculation"— makes them less susceptible to it, giving them a sort of generalized immunity. "Pre-bunking" also works — telling people hey, this is how miscreants are going to try to dupe you; don't fall for it! To round out the immunological metaphors, he also has suggestions for active vs passive, and prophylactic vs therapeutic inoculation, and booster shots, too. You can develop and practice all these skills by playing "Bad News", the game his lab developed and distributed in conjunction with Cambridge and the UK government.

    With the precision of the scientist that he is, van der Linden's observations and prescriptions capture the nuance of what *should* work vs what *actually* works. You would do well to pick up this book to immunize yourself and loved ones against the the upcoming deluge of misinformation (now further facilitated by AI) about to hit humanity's noggins.
    -- Ali Binazir, M.D., M.Phil., Happiness Engineer and author of The Tao of Dating: The Smart Woman's Guide to Being Absolutely Irresistible, the highest-rated dating book on Amazon for 7 years, and Should I Go to Medical School?: An Irreverent Guide to the Pros and Cons of a Career in Medicine

    NOTE TO THE PUBLISHER, WW NORTON: I found at least 36 errors and typos in the ebook, from the merely annoying (extra hyphens, missing close quotes, "homogenous") to the egregious (the flipped Inauguration photos). What does Norton pay its editors for? Especially in a book about misinformation, it is paramount to get things right, and WW Norton has clearly punted on the job. It has also neglected to put an iota of effort into creating an American version. "Licence", "defence" and "scepticism" look like typos to American eyes, as do the quirks of British formatting (e.g. n-dashes and single quotes). This is a gross disservice to both your author and your readers. Luckily, it took me less than a day to catch those errors, so it shouldn't take you more than a day to fix them for an updated ebook edition. Please do *your* part in the fight against misinformation.
    19 people found this helpful
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  • Reviewed in the United States on July 21, 2024
    The parallel between bio-based and info-based viruses is well thought through. It nicely builds sensitivity and insight into ‘manipulation’. Good read for young and old(er)
    One person found this helpful
    Report
  • Reviewed in the United States on June 15, 2023
    I read this from our local library in early June 2023 and took 12 pages of notes. I am a science trained senior on the conservative side. I did observe underlying bias and failure to fully vet the so called conspiracies the author used extensively to train his subjects to recognize misinformation. Specifically, he used “the fact that 97% of climate scientists agree that humans are causing global warming” on pages 77 and 182 and “that human-caused climate change is happening” on pg 185. On page 256 he used similar phrasing and added “And they are undisputed.” Science doesn’t work that way. Not all climate scientist were surveyed and while humans may be a major CO2 contributor, climate is always changing and causes and relationships are constantly in dispute. Similar context was exhibited for other controversial (conspiratorial) subjects such as origin of Sars Cov2 (Covid 19) and “vaccines are safe”, 2020 election fraud and others as if these are “undisputed” and just misinformation.
    Not withstanding my personal objectivity, the book was an interesting read with stories behind trial and error experiments in how and why people respond to information in different ways. It boils down to we believe what we want to based on what we have experienced before and it takes a change in our paradigm to question misinformation. This book can help us manage the flood of misinformation in daily life and become aware of how our personal data is extracted and used to micro-target us with ads and messages.
    4 people found this helpful
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Top reviews from other countries

  • LAAMCC
    1.0 out of 5 stars Terrible.
    Reviewed in Canada on August 2, 2023
    Author is more focused on name dropping than anything else. Couldn't finish it.
  • Shreya patel
    5.0 out of 5 stars Good one!
    Reviewed in India on October 21, 2023
    In "Foolproof: Why We Fall for Misinformation and How to Build Immunity" by Sander van der Linden, the author offers an insightful examination of the prevalent issue of misinformation in our digital era.

    With the advent of social media and the ease of information dissemination, false narratives and conspiracy theories proliferate rapidly, distorting our beliefs and influencing our decisions.

    Author Sander delves into the psychology behind misinformation, unravels its mechanisms, and equips readers with essential tools to protect themselves from its allure.

    Drawing on compelling examples and scientific research, the author empowers readers with eleven vital strategies to effectively counter the spread of misinformation.

    In a world where the internet and social media have transformed how we receive and process information, billions are connected and can rapidly share news and information, often contributing to the spread of misinformation.

    Sander van der Linden, an expert in the field, offers a well-researched exploration of this issue, delving into the nature of fake news, conspiracy theories, and misinformation, explaining how and why they propagate. This is particularly pertinent in light of recent events, such as the spread of COVID-related misinformation through social media. To prevent such occurrences in the future, the author provides guidance and tools to enhance awareness and promote fact-checking before accepting and forwarding information blindly. In the modern age, this emphasis on fact-checking is of utmost importance.

    The book is replete with practical examples and anecdotes that enhance its engagement. It stands as a crucial and credible work on a highly relevant contemporary topic, and I strongly encourage you to read it.

    This masterfully crafted masterpiece captivates readers of all backgrounds, effortlessly engaging both experts and novices, making it an exceptional choice for a diverse readership. However, it's worth noting that the author resorts to ad-hominem attacks on individuals and groups he disapproves of, such as the British aristocracy and Donald Trump, which is an unfortunate departure from the book's purported focus on information.

    Despite this, due to its rich content and impeccable prose, this book remains highly recommended for those in search of a captivating and enlightening literary journey.
    Customer image
    Shreya patel
    5.0 out of 5 stars
    Good one!

    Reviewed in India on October 21, 2023
    In "Foolproof: Why We Fall for Misinformation and How to Build Immunity" by Sander van der Linden, the author offers an insightful examination of the prevalent issue of misinformation in our digital era.

    With the advent of social media and the ease of information dissemination, false narratives and conspiracy theories proliferate rapidly, distorting our beliefs and influencing our decisions.

    Author Sander delves into the psychology behind misinformation, unravels its mechanisms, and equips readers with essential tools to protect themselves from its allure.

    Drawing on compelling examples and scientific research, the author empowers readers with eleven vital strategies to effectively counter the spread of misinformation.

    In a world where the internet and social media have transformed how we receive and process information, billions are connected and can rapidly share news and information, often contributing to the spread of misinformation.

    Sander van der Linden, an expert in the field, offers a well-researched exploration of this issue, delving into the nature of fake news, conspiracy theories, and misinformation, explaining how and why they propagate. This is particularly pertinent in light of recent events, such as the spread of COVID-related misinformation through social media. To prevent such occurrences in the future, the author provides guidance and tools to enhance awareness and promote fact-checking before accepting and forwarding information blindly. In the modern age, this emphasis on fact-checking is of utmost importance.

    The book is replete with practical examples and anecdotes that enhance its engagement. It stands as a crucial and credible work on a highly relevant contemporary topic, and I strongly encourage you to read it.

    This masterfully crafted masterpiece captivates readers of all backgrounds, effortlessly engaging both experts and novices, making it an exceptional choice for a diverse readership. However, it's worth noting that the author resorts to ad-hominem attacks on individuals and groups he disapproves of, such as the British aristocracy and Donald Trump, which is an unfortunate departure from the book's purported focus on information.

    Despite this, due to its rich content and impeccable prose, this book remains highly recommended for those in search of a captivating and enlightening literary journey.
    Images in this review
    Customer image
  • March Ventures
    5.0 out of 5 stars Brilliant
    Reviewed in Germany on July 3, 2024
    Thought provoking. Great read and gift!
  • Jason Stanton
    5.0 out of 5 stars Riveting account of why people believe in conspiracy theories
    Reviewed in the United Kingdom on March 5, 2023
    I loved this book. Unfortunately some of my family have fallen for blatant misinformation and this book outlines the fascinating psychology of why people believe in conspiracy theories but also helped me understand why debunking isn't always effective (as frustrating at it is). Although a popular book, it features plenty of scientific studies and that's what gives it credibility for me and van der Linden writes in a very accessible style with lots of humour and fun examples. His research into psychological inoculation is groundbreaking and I certainly will be using it. I also thought the studies on how our click behavior is used for digital targeting was particularly concerning. Overall, I learnt a lot and think this book should be widely read by anyone with an interest in social media and the spread of falsehoods in society.
  • BaerbelW
    5.0 out of 5 stars A must read for anybody who doesn‘t want to be hoodwinked!
    Reviewed in Germany on October 8, 2023
    Sander van der Linden‘s book „Foolproof“ is a must read for anybody who doesn‘t want to accidentally fall for fake news, mis- and disinformation. The book explains several research projects of how to inoculate the public against misinformation and suggests how each of us can help with the task.