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Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning Hardcover – April 14, 2014
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To most of us, learning something “the hard way” implies wasted time and effort. Good teaching, we believe, should be creatively tailored to the different learning styles of students and should use strategies that make learning easier. Make It Stick turns fashionable ideas like these on their head. Drawing on recent discoveries in cognitive psychology and other disciplines, the authors offer concrete techniques for becoming more productive learners.
Memory plays a central role in our ability to carry out complex cognitive tasks, such as applying knowledge to problems never before encountered and drawing inferences from facts already known. New insights into how memory is encoded, consolidated, and later retrieved have led to a better understanding of how we learn. Grappling with the impediments that make learning challenging leads both to more complex mastery and better retention of what was learned.
Many common study habits and practice routines turn out to be counterproductive. Underlining and highlighting, rereading, cramming, and single-minded repetition of new skills create the illusion of mastery, but gains fade quickly. More complex and durable learning come from self-testing, introducing certain difficulties in practice, waiting to re-study new material until a little forgetting has set in, and interleaving the practice of one skill or topic with another. Speaking most urgently to students, teachers, trainers, and athletes, Make It Stick will appeal to all those interested in the challenge of lifelong learning and self-improvement.
- Length
336
Pages
- Language
EN
English
- PublisherBelknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press
- Publication date
2014
April 14
- Dimensions
5.7 x 1.1 x 8.6
inches
- ISBN-100674729013
- ISBN-13978-0674729018
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From the Publisher
Editorial Reviews
Review
“Many educators are interested in making use of recent findings about the human brain and how we learn… Make It Stick [is] the single best work I have encountered on the subject. Anyone with an interest in teaching or learning will benefit from reading this book, which not only presents thoroughly grounded research but does so in an eminently readable way that is accessible even to students.”―James M. Lang, Chronicle of Higher Education
“For a deeper dig into the science of learning, make sure to pick up Make It Stick. It’s an illuminating read.”―Drake Baer, Business Insider
“A highly engaging and accessible text that neatly provides the reader with both a thorough grounding in the empirical and theoretical work on durable learning, while also offering specific, actionable recommendations for immediate implementation.”―Kathryn E. Frazier, Currents in Teaching and Learning
“Aimed primarily at students, parents, and teachers, Make It Stick also offers practical advice for learners of all ages, at all stages of life… With its credible challenge to conventional wisdom, Make It Stick does point the way forward, with a very real prospect of tangible and enduring benefits.”―Glenn C. Altschuler, Psychology Today
“Presents a compelling case for why we are attracted to the wrong strategies for learning and teaching―and what we can do to remedy our approaches… In clear language, Make It Stick explains the science underlying how people learn. But the authors don’t simply recite the research; they show readers how it is applied in real-life learning scenarios, with engaging stories of real people in academic, professional, and sports environments… The learning strategies proposed in this book can be implemented immediately, at no cost, and to great effect… Make It Stick will help you become a much more productive learner.”―Stephanie Castellano, TD Magazine
“If I could, I would assign all professors charged with teaching undergraduates one book: Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning… It lays out what we know about the science of learning in clear, accessible prose. Every educator―and parent, and student, and professional―ought to have it on their own personal syllabus.”―Annie Murphy Paul, The Brilliant blog
“This is a quite remarkable book. It describes important research findings with startling implications for how we can improve our own learning, teaching, and coaching. Even more, it shows us how more positive attitudes toward our own abilities―and the willingness to tackle the hard stuff―enables us to achieve our goals. The compelling stories bring the ideas out of the lab and into the real world.”―Robert Bjork, University of California, Los Angeles
“Learning is essential and life-long. Yet as these authors argue convincingly, people often use exactly the wrong strategies and don't appreciate the ones that work. We’ve learned a lot in the last decade about applying cognitive science to real-world learning, and this book combines everyday examples with clear explanations of the research. It’s easy to read―and should be easy to learn from, too!”―Daniel L. Schacter, author of The Seven Sins of Memory
About the Author
Henry L. Roediger III is James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor of Psychology at Washington University in St. Louis.
Mark A. McDaniel is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Center for Integrative Research on Cognition, Learning, and Education (CIRCLE) at Washington University in St. Louis.
Product details
- Publisher : Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press; 1st edition (April 14, 2014)
- Language : English
- Hardcover : 336 pages
- ISBN-10 : 0674729013
- ISBN-13 : 978-0674729018
- Item Weight : 1.08 pounds
- Dimensions : 5.73 x 1.13 x 8.64 inches
- Best Sellers Rank: #16,333 in Books (See Top 100 in Books)
- Customer Reviews:
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About the authors

Peter C. Brown is a writer and novelist in St. Paul, Minnesota.

Mark A. McDaniel (born 1952) is an American psychology researcher in the area of human learning and memory. He is one of the most influential researchers in prospective memory, but also well known for other basic research in memory and learning, cognitive aging, as well as applying cognitive psychology to education. McDaniel has published over 100 peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and edited books. His research in memory and cognition has received over two million dollars in grant support from NIH and NASA.
Bio from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Henry L. "Roddy" Roediger III (born July 24, 1947) is an American psychology researcher in the area of human learning and memory. He rose to prominence for his work on the psychological aspects of false memories.
Bio from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
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Conventional Wisdom: Make learning easy
Best practice: Design learning with desirable difficulties
Discussion: “Learning is deeper and more durable when it is effortful.” “Difficulties that elicit more effort and that slow down learning… will more than compensate for their inconvenience by making the learning stronger, more precise, and more enduring. Short-term impediments that make for stronger learning have come to be called desirable difficulties.” “Don’t assume you are doing something wrong if the learning feels hard.” “Not all difficulties in learning are desirable ones. Anxiety while taking a test seems to represent an undesirable difficulty.” Slow down to find meaning. Always read prior to the lecture. “Training has to be engaging in order to hold employees’ attention.”
Conventional Wisdom: Concentrate on one topic at a time (aka. massed practice)
Best practice: Interleave different but related topics
Discussion: “Learning from interleaved practice feels slower than learning from massed practice.” While interleaving can impede performance during initial learning (tests taken immediately after exposure), interleaving has been show to boost “final test performance by a remarkable 215 percent.” In addition, “commonalities… learned through massed practice proved less useful than the differences … learned through interleaving.” “In interleaving, you don’t move from a complete practice set of one topic to go to another. You switch before each practice is complete… You need to shuffle your flashcards.”
Conventional Wisdom: Reread material multiple times and in close succession
Best practice: Space repetition
Discussion: “Repetition by itself does not lead to good long-term memory… It makes sense to reread a text once if there’s been a meaningful lapse [at least a day in between] since the first reading.” “The increased effort required to retrieve the learning after a little forgetting has the effect of retriggering consolidation, further strengthening memory.” “Design quizzing and exercises to reach back to concepts and learning covered earlier in the term, so that retrieval practices continues and the learning is cumulative.” Spiral upward at increasing levels of difficulty with each re-exposure.
Conventional Wisdom: Reread to lock-in knowledge
Best practice: Focus on effortful recall of facts or concepts or events from memory (aka. Retrieval practice)
Discussion: “Retrieving knowledge and skill from memory should become your primary study strategy in place of rereading.” There are many methods of retrieval practice. Elaboration, expressing new material in your own words and connecting it with what you already know to find new layers of meaning, for instance by writing daily summaries, is the most effective. Moreover, “cultivating the habit of reflecting on ones’ experiences, of making them into a story, strengthens learning.” Essays and short answer tests are the next most effective durable learning strategies because they involve “Generation… an attempt to answer a question… before being shown the answer”, followed by practice with flash cards, reflection, and, least effective though still useful, multiple choice or true/false questions. To foster this, convert main points into questions to answer during subsequent studying rather than (or in addition to) highlighting and underling,
Conventional Wisdom: Conduct pop-quizzes and high-stakes post-testing with a goal toward errorless results
Best practice: Conduct frequent, predictable, low-stakes testing (including pre-testing)
Discussion: “Trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution leads to better learning, even when errors are made in the attempt.” In fact, “making mistakes and correcting them builds the bridges to advanced learning.” In addition, frequent quizzing – especially when quizzes are announced in advance - actually reduces learner anxiety. With respect to anxiety, the peak-end rule applies; people judge experiences based on how they were at the peak and at the end. Appreciate that “errors are a natural part of learning.” “Make quizzing and practice exercises count toward the course grade, even if for very low stakes.” Set “clear learning objectives prior to each class.”
Conventional Wisdom: Match instructional style to each learner’s preference
Best practice: Match instructional style to the nature of the content
Discussion: While people do have preferred learning styles (ex: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile), empirical research does not support the notion that learning in your preferred style leads to superior outcomes. “When instructional style matches the nature of the content, all learners learn better, regardless of their differing preferences for how the material is taught.”
Conventional Wisdom: Memorize
Best practice: Extract underlying principles (aka “rule learning” and “structure building”)
Discussion: “It is better to solve a problem than to memorize a solution.” “Mnemonic devise are sometimes discounted as tricks of memory, not tools that fundamentally add to learning, and in a sense this is correct. The value of mnemonics to raise intellectual abilities comes after mastery of new material.”
Conventional Wisdom: Learn abstract concepts
Best practice: Learn using methods and examples that are concrete and personal
Discussion: “The kind of retrieval practice that proves most effective is one that reflects what you’ll be doing with the knowledge later. It’s not just what you know, but how you practice what you know that determines how well the learning serves you later.” Simulations and role-playing are excellent techniques. “Difficulties that don’t strengthen the skills you will need, or the kinds of challenges you are likely to encounter in the real-world application of your learning, are not desirable.” “Practice like you play, because you will play like you practice.” “Sustained deliberate practice… [is] goal-directed, often solitary, and consists of repeated striving to reach beyond your current level of performance.”
Conventional Wisdom: Read without pausing
Best practice: Spend 40% of time reading and 60% of time “looking up from the material and silently reciting” what it contains.
Conventional Wisdom: Provide immediate feedback
Best practice: Delay feedback
Discussion: “Delaying the feedback briefly produces better long-term learning than immediate feedback.” That said, receiving immediate corrective feedback is better than receiving no feedback at all.
Conventional Wisdom: Review all concepts equally
Best practice: Disproportionately focus on the least familiar material (aka dynamic testing)
Discussion: To increase frequency of practice on less familiar material without completely ignoring the most familiar material, use the Leitner box method. “Think of it as a series of four file-card boxes. In the first are the study materials… that must be practices frequently because you often make mistakes in them. In the second box are the cards you’re pretty good at, and that box gets practiced less often than the first, perhaps by half. The cards in the third box are practiced less often than those in the second box, and so on.”
Conventional Wisdom: Accept that IQ is fixed
Best practice: Focus on mindset
Discussion: “Average IQs have risen over the past century with changes in living conditions... IQ is a product of genes and environment” including increased stimulation, nurturing, nutrition “One difference that matters a lot is how you see yourself and your abilities. As the maxim goes, ‘Whether you think you can or you think you can’t, you’re right.’” Adopt a growth mindset rather than a fixed mindset; “consider your expertise to be in a continuing state of development.” “Success is less dependent on IQ than on grit, curiosity, and persistence.” Knowledge is a foundational element of creativity, critical thinking, and application. “The upper limits of your performance on any cognitive or manual skill may be set by factors beyond your control, such as you intelligence and the natural limits of your ability, but most of us can learn to perform nearer to our full potential in most areas by discovering our weaknesses and working to bring them up.” “Achieving expertise in any field if particular to that field… The central idea here is that expert performance is a product of the quantity of and the quality of practice, not of genetic predisposition, and that becoming expert is not beyond the reach of normally gifted people who have the motivation, time, and discipline to pursue it.”
Conventional Wisdom: Trust your own sense of mastery
Best practice: Calibrate your judgment
Discussion: “Calibration is the act of aligning your judgments of what you know and don’t know with objective feedback so as to avoid being carried off by the illusions of mastery that catch many learning by surprise at test time.”
Note: This book practices what it preaches with lots and lots of repetition. The authors are up-front about that but it does get well... repetitive.
Key Takeaways from the Book:
Effective Learning Strategies:
• Periodic Practice and Spaced Retrieval: Periodic practice, spaced out over time, strengthens retrieval routes and prevents forgetting. Retrieval becomes harder but produces longer-lasting learning.
• Testing as a Tool: Testing identifies weaknesses and enhances mastery in various learning areas. It is more effective than relying on preferred learning styles.
• Elaboration: Expressing new material in your own words and connecting it to existing knowledge through elaboration can lead to limitless learning.
• Organizing Information: Creating mental models and connecting new information to prior knowledge enhances learning, especially for complex mastery.
Challenging Popular Beliefs:
• Learning Styles Myth: The idea that instruction should align with one's preferred learning style is not supported by research.
• Difficulty and Strength of Learning: Contrary to the belief that making learning easier and faster leads to better outcomes, research suggests that harder learning is stronger and lasts longer.
Optimizing Retrieval Practice:
• Spaced Practice vs. Massed Practice: Spaced retrieval practice, with intervals between sessions, is more effective for long-term retention compared to massed practice (cramming).
• Feedback and Reflection: Regular self-quizzing, feedback, and reflection recalibrate understanding and contribute to stronger learning.
Memory and Learning Process:
• Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Learning involves consolidation, where memory traces are strengthened and connected to prior knowledge. Reconsolidation through retrieval practice modifies and strengthens learning.
• Effortful Learning: Effortful learning builds new connections in the brain and is essential for complex mastery.
Learning Tips for Students:
• Retrieval Practice: Self-quizzing enhances learning more than repeated readings.
• Spaced Practice: Studying information with intervals between sessions improves retention.
• Effective Study Strategies: Elaboration, generation, and mnemonic devices enhance mastery.
Cognitive Differences and Intelligence:
• Structure Building: Extracting salient ideas and constructing mental frameworks improves learning.
• Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Both types of intelligence contribute to learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.
Lifelong Learning:
• Applicability of Strategies: The outlined learning strategies are effective for learners of all ages, even outside formal classroom settings.
• Tips for Lifelong Learners: Continuous practice of effective strategies contributes to ongoing learning and knowledge retention.
The book, "Make It Stick" challenges traditional learning approaches and provides evidence-backed strategies for effective and durable learning, emphasizing the importance of retrieval practice, spaced learning, and active engagement with new material. The book encourages learners to embrace the complexity of the learning process and adopt strategies that optimize memory consolidation and recall.
Key Takeaways from the Book:
Effective Learning Strategies:
• Periodic Practice and Spaced Retrieval: Periodic practice, spaced out over time, strengthens retrieval routes and prevents forgetting. Retrieval becomes harder but produces longer-lasting learning.
• Testing as a Tool: Testing identifies weaknesses and enhances mastery in various learning areas. It is more effective than relying on preferred learning styles.
• Elaboration: Expressing new material in your own words and connecting it to existing knowledge through elaboration can lead to limitless learning.
• Organizing Information: Creating mental models and connecting new information to prior knowledge enhances learning, especially for complex mastery.
Challenging Popular Beliefs:
• Learning Styles Myth: The idea that instruction should align with one's preferred learning style is not supported by research.
• Difficulty and Strength of Learning: Contrary to the belief that making learning easier and faster leads to better outcomes, research suggests that harder learning is stronger and lasts longer.
Optimizing Retrieval Practice:
• Spaced Practice vs. Massed Practice: Spaced retrieval practice, with intervals between sessions, is more effective for long-term retention compared to massed practice (cramming).
• Feedback and Reflection: Regular self-quizzing, feedback, and reflection recalibrate understanding and contribute to stronger learning.
Memory and Learning Process:
• Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Learning involves consolidation, where memory traces are strengthened and connected to prior knowledge. Reconsolidation through retrieval practice modifies and strengthens learning.
• Effortful Learning: Effortful learning builds new connections in the brain and is essential for complex mastery.
Learning Tips for Students:
• Retrieval Practice: Self-quizzing enhances learning more than repeated readings.
• Spaced Practice: Studying information with intervals between sessions improves retention.
• Effective Study Strategies: Elaboration, generation, and mnemonic devices enhance mastery.
Cognitive Differences and Intelligence:
• Structure Building: Extracting salient ideas and constructing mental frameworks improves learning.
• Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Both types of intelligence contribute to learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.
Lifelong Learning:
• Applicability of Strategies: The outlined learning strategies are effective for learners of all ages, even outside formal classroom settings.
• Tips for Lifelong Learners: Continuous practice of effective strategies contributes to ongoing learning and knowledge retention.
The book, "Make It Stick" challenges traditional learning approaches and provides evidence-backed strategies for effective and durable learning, emphasizing the importance of retrieval practice, spaced learning, and active engagement with new material. The book encourages learners to embrace the complexity of the learning process and adopt strategies that optimize memory consolidation and recall.
Top reviews from other countries
Com uma escrita calma e engajante, os autores nos trazem as respostas de cara, posteriormente esmiuçando cada uma em seu próprio capítulo. O capítulo final trata de recomendações para professores, alunos e treinadores.
Enquanto algumas ideias como a repetição espaçada e a variação de tópicos são mais conhecidas, traz também diversos pontos menos intuitivos.
Entre eles, o de que o esforço é uma variável essencial no nosso aprendizado: quanto mais forçamos a mente para lembrar do que estudamos, mais será proveitoso para nossa memória a longo prazo. Unindo isto a outras dificuldades construtivas como a variação de assunto e o estudo intervalado, vemos que muitas atitudes normais de professores ou estudantes na verdade vão contra tais princípios. Na Matemática, por exemplo, estudamos uma fórmula de cada vez, a aplicamos a diversos exercícios e depois passamos para o próximo procedimento. Deveria ser feito o oposto.
Os autores igualmente não deixam a desejar no quesito de uma explicação humana: tendemos naturalmente a preferir caminhos menos tortuosos e focamos no curto prazo. Este engano do cérebro nos leva a preferir quase sempre "ilusões". Preferimos fazer um cursinho e decorar tudo para a prova mesmo sabendo que vamos esquecer após alguns dias. O imediatismo traz uma falsa segurança.
Se fosse resumir o livro em uma frase, seria um simples "aprenda com os seus erros". Por mais batido que seja, nunca deixa de ser verdade: e desta vez com roupagem científica. O autor embasa seu argumento, além dos estudos, em coletâneas de psicologia recentes como Mindset: A Nova Psicologia do Sucesso de Dweck. Dweck traz exatamente a ideia de tomar o erro como aprendizado, não como uma falha. Este princípio tão simples e tão antigo, no final, se mostra finalmente comprovado no século XXI, ao todo disponível para que dele desfrutemos.
To give a little background into why I write the review, and to hopefully encourage others who might be similar to invest in this publication:
I always wondered why I couldn't transfer an uncommon ability to absorb trivia into other parts of my life, especially in an academic context. When I was in high school, I was an exceptional sponge of knowledge, and placed well in national trivia competitions. Even after high school, I won pub quizzes as 'One Man At the Bar". Why couldn't I transfer this 'skill' to more important and worthwhile pursuits?
I'd always been pretty relaxed (to the point of horizontal) in my approach to studying, with a toxic combination undermining my progress. I had a natural disinclination to study, as well as an acceptance of second best, all anchored down by an abysmal sense of self esteem. Despite all of this, I always reassured myself that I could achieve things if I 'actually' tried, and stayed safe in the knowledge that "if I really work at it, I could definitely do/learn it." Failures in anything were handwaved with 'I didn't try hard enough', which may or may not have been truthful - it's difficult to objectively analyse.
However, having worked hard on eliminating the self-esteem problems over the last year, and setting the bar a lot higher for myself in terms of what I'd like to get out of life, I noticed I had surprising difficulties in retaining knowledge on C++ and Programming. I had assumed that sustained study with purpose and direction would finally allow me to 'take the handbrake off' on my learning, and find a better career in programming. It came as a rude shock to see me fail to grasp and retain information that, while not necessarily easy, is certainly something that other people seem able to master in a much shorter timeframe.
After a little research into what might be slowing me down (it wasn't intelligence, memory, lack of interest, ADHD, etc...), I found this book - and I now realise I simply had never learned how to study properly! Put succinctly: I had never needed to! I more or less crammed or desperately squeezed what info I could into my head before any tests/assignments (some of which, looking back, I very badly let myself down in). On one occasion, I can remember being dishonest in an official exam, although with zero benefit from a moral or personal perspective.
Anyway; this book has helped me retain very difficult information in a very short time frame. I'm finally able to reel off the kind of complicated knowledge presented in books like 'C++ Primer' (incidentally, an excellent book!) in the same way that I could casually recall trivia like country capitals, the monarchs reigning during certain historical events, or the creator of specific pieces of art.
Certainly, this book will not turn one into a genius overnight (or indeed, ever!) - AND there is 'work' to be put into studying and the use/creation of spaced-repetition flashcards...but just find what works for you. I cannot recommend this book enough, and look forward to moving through life with the handbrake finally removed :)
One was that there seems to be an obvious push towards testing in general without acknowledging that a lot of testing that actually is done currently could be a lot better—such as by following some of the guidelines the authors present. The authors comment on general resistance to the idea of testing, but rather than acknowledge that there might be very good reasons for resistance and try to explain why their views on testing might be better than the 'general perception of testing' they politely dismiss such people. One quote regarding "practice as you play and you will play as you practice" (a sports reference) was an excellent point. Another excellent point was something to the effect that effective learning occurs with engagement. So, there seemed to be a missed opportunity to examine in greater detail how not all testing is equally effective or worthwhile. They do describe conditions for good testing and why trying to "practice as you play" is good, but with things out there such as the general failure of second language education in most places in the world, "practice as you play" and 'engagement' would have been excellent things to apply to that, for example. I do imagine that the authors, of course, would want 'quality testing' and would probably support 'practice' that simulates how the skill might be used in real life—especially if was powerful for recall and application of knowledge and revealed what the student actually did know versus what he didn't for real-life application—even if most people might not think of it as a typical 'test'. The tone made me feel something akin to the presence of 'previous arguments' surfacing with a very strong impression of which side of the debate the authors sat on.
A second annoying point—and this is being really 'nit-picky'—was that they seem to use the word 'intuition' as a generic 'bad' word to mean 'faulty or premature reasoning based on limited information, an insufficiently-complete-enough perspective, and/or perhaps being influenced by a false social consensus'. It wasn't a big deal but it was very distracting as it came up repeatedly. I'm not saying that instinctive-feeling reactions or any of the other normal, typical definitions of 'intuition' are reliable measures for rational analysis, but in the examples they give it is often assumptions or mistaken reasoning (based on faulty or incomplete information). They seem to always feel a compulsion to instead say 'intuition'. Mistakes can be made based on faulty reasoning or logic—and no jumping to intuition or hunches need be required. That's essentially what their examples told me, and it was a very good point and a worthy caution—if I understood correctly.
In general, a good book though...














