The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History

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The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History Audible Audiobook – Unabridged

Elizabeth Kolbert (Author), Anne Twomey (Narrator), Simon & Schuster Audio (Publisher)

4.5 10,060 ratings

Goodreads Choice Award nominee

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A major audiobook about the future of the world, blending intellectual and natural history and field reporting into a powerful account of the mass extinction unfolding before our eyes.

Over the last half a billion years, there have been five mass extinctions, when the diversity of life on Earth suddenly and dramatically contracted. Scientists around the world are currently monitoring the sixth extinction, predicted to be the most devastating extinction event since the asteroid impact that wiped out the dinosaurs. This time around, the cataclysm is us. In The Sixth Extinction, two-time winner of the National Magazine Award and New Yorker writer Elizabeth Kolbert draws on the work of scores of researchers in half a dozen disciplines, accompanying many of them into the field: geologists who study deep ocean cores, botanists who follow the tree line as it climbs up the Andes, marine biologists who dive off the Great Barrier Reef.

She introduces us to a dozen species, some already gone, others facing extinction, including the Panamian golden frog, staghorn coral, the great auk, and the Sumatran rhino. Through these stories, Kolbert provides a moving account of the disappearances occurring all around us and traces the evolution of extinction as concept, from its first articulation by Georges Cuvier in revolutionary Paris up through the present day. The sixth extinction is likely to be mankind's most lasting legacy; as Kolbert observes, it compels us to rethink the fundamental question of what it means to be human.

Listening Length

9 hours and 59 minutes
Author

Elizabeth Kolbert
Narrator

Anne Twomey
Audible release date

February 11, 2014
Language

English
Publisher

Simon & Schuster Audio
ASIN

B00FZ45FB0
Version

Unabridged
Program Type

Audiobook
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Product details

Listening Length	9 hours and 59 minutes
Author	Elizabeth Kolbert
Narrator	Anne Twomey
Whispersync for Voice	Ready
Audible.com Release Date	February 11, 2014
Publisher	Simon & Schuster Audio
Program Type	Audiobook
Version	Unabridged
Language	English
ASIN	B00FZ45FB0
Best Sellers Rank	#11,586 in Audible Books & Originals (See Top 100 in Audible Books & Originals) #12 in Environmental Conservation #31 in Environmentalism #32 in Nature Conservation

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Richard Reese (author of Understanding Sustainability)

A Feast of Potent Ideas

Reviewed in the United States on June 21, 2015

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The Sixth Extinction

I didn’t rush to read Elizabeth Kolbert’s book, The Sixth Extinction, because I imagined it would be a gloomy expose on the unfortunate consequences of way too much half-baked cleverness — and it was. But it’s also a fascinating story about the long saga of life on Earth, and the unclever antics of the latest primate species. It’s an outstanding book.

We have soared away into a fantasy world, where godlike humans spend their lives creating brilliant miracles. But when observed in a 450 million year timeframe, from this moment when a new mass extinction is gathering momentum, the wonders of progress and technological innovation lose their shine. Kolbert rips off our virtual reality headsets, and serves us powerful medicine, a feast of provocative news.

Today, the frog people are not feeling lucky. They have lived on this sweet planet for 400 million years, but many are now dying, because of a fungus called Bd. This fungus can live happily in the forest on its own, without an amphibian host, so endangered frogs rescued by scientists cannot be returned to the wild. The crisis began when humans transported frogs that carried the fungus, but were immune to it. There was money to be made in the frog business, and so the fungus has spread around the globe.

This is similar to the chestnut blight of a century ago. Entrepreneurs profitably imported chestnut seedlings from Asia. The Asian species was immune to the fungus it carried. American chestnut trees were not immune, and four billion died, almost all of them. The fungus persists, so replanting is pointless.

North American bats are dying by the millions from white-nose, caused by fungus that is common in Europe, where bats are immune to it. It was likely carried across the Atlantic by a tourist who dropped some spores in Howe Caverns, in New York. By 2013, the die-off had spread to 22 U.S. states and five Canadian provinces.

Welcome to New Pangaea! Once upon a time, long before we were born, all seven continents were joined together in a single continent, Pangaea. Over time, it broke apart, and ecosystems on each continent evolved in a unique way. In recent centuries, highly mobile humans have moved countless organisms from one ecosystem to another, both deliberately and unintentionally. The seven continents no longer enjoy the long-term stability provided by isolation.

On another front, many colonies of humans have become obsessed with burning sequestered carbon on an enormous scale. This is overloading the atmosphere with carbon, which the oceans absorb and convert to carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a huge threat to marine life, except for lucky critters, like jellyfish. The world’s coral reefs are dying.

Tropical rainforests are treasure chests of biological diversity. Tropical oceans generally are not, because of low levels of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Coral reefs are the shining exception. They provide habitat for thriving ecosystems, home to more than 500,000 species. This reminded me of beaver ponds, which are also sanctuaries of abundant life.

Coral polyps and beavers are excellent examples of reciprocity. They create relationships that are mutually beneficial for many species. Reciprocity is a vital idea that most human cultures have forgotten. Our dominant culture has no respect for the wellbeing of ecosystems. It has a tradition of displacing or exterminating the indigenous species on the land, and replacing them with unsustainable manmade systems.

Evolution is fascinating. Rabbits and mice have numerous offspring, because they are vulnerable to predators. Other species have deflected the predator challenge by evolving to great size, like mammoths, hippos, and rhinos. Big critters have long lifespans and low birth rates. This made them highly vulnerable when Homo sapiens moved into the neighborhood.

Kolbert imagines that the megafauna extinctions were not the result of a reckless orgy of overhunting. It probably took centuries. Hunters had no way of knowing how much the mammoth population had gradually dwindled over the generations. Because they reproduced so slowly, they could have been driven to extinction by nothing more than modest levels of hunting. An elephant does not reach sexual maturity until its teens, and each pregnancy takes 22 months. There are never twins. Deer are still with us, because they reproduce faster.

Sadly, Neanderthals are no longer with us. They lived in Europe for at least 100,000 years, and during that time, their tool collection barely changed. They probably never used projectiles. They have acquired a reputation for being notorious dimwits, because they lived in a stable manner for a very long time, and didn’t rubbish the ecosystem. Homo sapiens moved into Europe 40,000 years ago. By 30,000 years ago, the Neanderthals were gone. The DNA of modern folks, except Africans, contains up to four percent Neanderthal genes.

Homo sapiens has lived in a far more intense manner. In the last 10,000 years, we’ve turned the planet inside out. Kolbert wonders if there was a slight shift in our DNA that made us so unstable — a “madness gene.” I wonder if we’re simply the victims of cultural evolution that hurled us down a terrible path. If we had been raised in Neanderthal clans, would we be stable, sane, and happy?

Kolbert laments, “The Neanderthals lived in Europe for more than a hundred thousand years and during that period they had no more impact on their surroundings than any other large vertebrate. There is every reason to believe that if humans had not arrived on the scene, the Neanderthals would be there still, along with the wild horses and wooly rhinos.”

Cultures have an amazing ability to put chains on our mental powers. Kolbert describes how scientists (and all humans) typically struggle with disruptive information, concepts that bounce off our sacred myths. Bizarre new ideas, like evolution, extinction, or climate change, are reflexively dismissed as nonsense. As evidence of reality accumulates, increasing levels of absurd rationalizations must be invented. Eventually, someone actually acknowledges reality, and a paradigm shift is born.

For most of my life, human extinction has not been on my radar. By the end of Kolbert’s book, readers understand that our extinction is more than a remote, theoretical possibility. What is absolutely certain is that we are pounding the planet to pieces. Everything is connected, and when one type of tree goes extinct, so do the insects that depend on it, as well as the birds that depend on the insects. When the coral polyps die, the coral reef ecosystem disintegrates.

The sixth mass extinction is clearly the result of human activities. The driving forces include the things we consider to be our great achievements — agriculture, civilization, industry, transportation systems. This is highly disruptive information, and everyone is working like crazy to rationalize our nightmares out of existence. Luckily, a number of people, like Kolbert, are beginning to acknowledge reality. Will there be a paradigm shift? Will we walk away from our great achievements, and spend the next 100,000 years living in balance with the planet?

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avantigi

Everyone Should Read This Book

Reviewed in the United States on January 21, 2024

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Amazing job of reporting on a difficult topic, by a journalist who is unbiased and presents some intriguing facts. Title might suggest that it’s a disaster story, or Armageddon, or conspiracy theories. It is not. The book presents diverse sides of the topic, with intelligence. I like the fact that after I read it, years ago, I came to understand that humans were going to be extinct long before the planet, and that gave me some degree of comfort. Maybe next time around, the beings who live here will be kinder and more aware that “we” are not the only living beings here, and perhaps then we will all have a better chance of survival.

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Ashutosh S. Jogalekar

On the varieties of killing

Reviewed in the United States on February 26, 2014

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Elizabeth Kolbert combines the sharp observational powers of a field biologist with the literary skill of a seasoned and thoughtful writer. In her previous book “Notes from a Field Catastrophe”, she travelled to far-flung parts of the globe to dig up stories on the deleterious effects of climate change. In her latest book she combines similar reporting from around the world with chapters from the history of science to bring us a noteworthy account of one of the most spectacular and important stories of biology and history – mass extinctions. There have been five documented big extinctions in history, with the most popular one being the death of the dinosaurs that was memorably caused by a meteorite. However we are probably now in the throes of a sixth extinction, and as Kolbert documents, at least parts of it are being caused by human beings’ destructive tendencies and our unquenchable thirst for natural resources. The concern for extinctions is not merely a discussion for the drawing rooms of bleeding-heart environmentalists; as a chemist, I am well-aware that about half of all drugs on the market are derived from natural sources. Every time we kill off another marine sponge or frog, we may be depriving ourselves of the next breakthrough drug against cancer or AIDS.

Kolbert starts by telling us how we came to know about extinctions in the eighteenth century. It took a long time for scientists and the public to actually believe in such devastating events, simply because of their magnitude. It was Georges Cuvier, a French naturalist, who painstakingly collected fossils and bones of giant and exotic creatures from around the world and turned conjecture into reality. By cataloging their sheer abundance Cuvier convinced everyone of the reality of worlds lost in time that were completely different from our own. Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell who came after Cuvier also debated extinctions; but since Darwin’s theory required very gradual changes over time, he could not quite fathom how entire species of animals could disappear in an evolutionary eyeblink. Kolbert also tells the fascinating story of the Alvarez father-son duo who discovered the potential reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs by measuring the startlingly high concentration of iridium – an element found in abundance only in meteorites – in certain clay layers.

The real meat of the book is Kolbert’s travels to different parts of the world and her reporting of what seem like extinctions of specific species. In one chapter she explores the impact of climate change on ocean acidification – one of the more neglected aspects of the global warming debate – on coral reefs. Ocean acidification is a consequence of simple chemistry; when carbon dioxide dissolves in water it lowers its pH, and the resulting acidic solution starts to eat away at corals which are composed of calcium carbonate.

Last year I was in Hawaii and one of the most revealing experiences I had there was snorkeling around the island where Captain Cook was killed. Peering through the goggles, I could see not only a spectacular ecosystem of fishes, tube worms, sea cucumbers, jellyfish and other denizens of the deep but also how critically dependent all of them were on the coral reefs. The worms were permanently latched on to the reefs and the fishes were constantly kissing the surface with puckered lips, consuming the plant and microbial material deposited in the oxygen-rich pores of the intricate structures. Clearly the reefs support many living worlds, and as Kolbert finds out first-hand, these worlds are being depleted by ocean acidification. Even those who may be skeptical of the warming effects of CO2 emissions should take this impact very seriously. And as I mentioned before, nor is this concern purely moral; marine sponges have been the source of some of the most promising drugs against cancer and will continue to be so.

Kolbert also explores the disappearance of other species spanning the spectrum of species diversity, from birds to frogs to mammals. In documenting this she travels to caves in Italy, rain forests in Central Africa and even a location in – of all places – suburban New Jersey, where traces of the K/T boundary event that killed off the dinosaurs can be found. Fungal infections seem to be a leading and particularly concerning cause of several current extinctions, most notably those of New England bats and Panamian golden frogs. Amphibians are more affected than almost any other species partly because of their sensitive skin. In a vivid chapter Kolbert locates an artificial ecosystem set up by scientists in Panama where the last few hundred golden frogs survive. By now the fungus is so rampant in their natural environment that releasing them outside would be fatal. These brightly colored creatures, nurtured by their human caretakers, are the last surviving members of their tribe and on the brink of disappearing from the face of the planet. A similar poignant chapter introduced us to a male Hawaiian crow, who just like the golden frogs, is part of a species that exists only in a zoo. All attempts by the zoo personnel to induce this crow to mate have been unsuccessful so far and one does not know how much longer his thread will stay unbroken.

Kolbert wisely stays away from attributing many of these species disappearances to human activity. But in many cases there is strong evidence that does link human activity to rapid species depletion. In this context deforestation may be an even bigger threat than climate change; indeed, a universal mathematical scaling law linking number of species to area seems to encapsulate the impact of deforestation. So is the introduction of non-endemic species by air and sea travel which when introduced into a new ecosystem find themselves free of predators and start decimating the local population; the brown tree snake which was introduced in Guam and which literally ate its way through several bird and amphibian populations is a noteworthy case. The voracious zebra mussel which has wreaked havoc in waterways in the US is another example.

The impact of humans is undeniable, and in measuring this impact we see the sometimes cruel and indifferent streaks of inhumanity which mark us as one of the few species on the planet which takes pleasure in killing others. Particularly barbaric was the butchering of the flightless Great Auk to extinction in Northern Europe in the nineteenth century; Kolbert talks about how hungry sailors devoured the auks not only by dunking them in boiling water but also by using them as fuel for the fire underneath. One of the simple reasons why humans can quickly render larger animals extinct is because of their slow breeding rate. This explains the disappearance of the megafauna in New Zealand for instance, where the hunting of the large, flightless moa provides a stark test case. In ecosystems untouched by humans, whatever disadvantages are suffered by creatures because of their slow reproductive rate can be compensated for by their larger size and strength. When intelligent human beings wielding weapons arrive on the scene, the equation radically changes. This is precisely why larger animals like lions, tigers and apes are the most threatened species today.

Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of humans’ devastating impact on other species emerges when we look not to distant species but to a very close one – the Neanderthal. One of the most significant discoveries in science during the last few years has been the realization that after encountering Neanderthals in Europe and Western Asia about forty thousand years ago, Homo sapiens first interbred with them and then somehow killed them off. There is something deeply creepy about this fact. As revealed by groundbreaking recent work on sequencing Neanderthal DNA, virtually all of us have between 1 and 4 percent of this DNA in our own genome. We may even have inherited a few genes for disease from our close cousins. This work has been made possible largely by the efforts of Swedish geneticist Svante Paabo who Kolbert interviews, and his recent book provides a fascinating look at the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome.

What caused Neanderthals to go extinct while we lived? War certainly could be one reason; after all population sizes as well as mortality rates then were quite low. Perhaps Neanderthal populations were already on the brink of extinction when humans met them so purely on a statistical basis they may have been unlikely to survive for too long. My favorite explanation is disease. It is very much possible that interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals made the latter more susceptible to certain diseases passed on from humans. Neanderthals could also have been more prone to certain diseases to begin with. There is also some evidence that humans were more creative and intelligent than Neanderthals, so we may have been better equipped to deal with diseases than our “less evolved” cousins. Whatever the reason, the co-existence of humans and Neanderthals followed by their disappearance is another data point on the table of extinctions in which humans might have played a dominant role.

The whole saga of extinctions also conceals a profound irony. In death there is life. The same great five extinctions that killed off more than 90% of species on the planet also opened up ecological niches and resources to previously suppressed creatures. Dinosaurs made room for mammals and amphibians and led to the evolution of human beings. It is also almost poetically ironic that a few members of the same human species that killed off so many of its evolutionarily distant and close cousins are also making heroic efforts to preserve the remaining members of certain species in zoos and other ecological enclaves. We don’t know how this story of extinctions is going to end. Perhaps it will end with humans killing most other species on the planet by breaking the chain of interdependencies between various animals and plants. If we do this we may be killing ourselves by destroying the intricate web of natural resources that allows us to farm, feed and clothe the world. Or perhaps we may kill ourselves more directly through climate change, overpopulation or nuclear war. In any case, the history of extinctions tells us that the planet will survive. Nature always finds a way.

*First published on the Scientific American Blog Network.

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Abraham

Just a little comment

Reviewed in Mexico on February 8, 2024

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There is mention of the Darwin frog as extinct. Just by coincidence, back in november I saw it very alive in Futangue, Lake District, Chile. At least 8 of them in our trip. We did sanitized our shoes and the frogs were handled by our guide with gloves. It seems that in the other locallity they have disappeared.

Daniel Jones

A different perspective on Climate change and life on earth

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on September 3, 2023

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A really interesting perspective on the ups and downs of life on earth. Step bye step the book examines the evidence for each of the elements of the climate crisis and summarises the challenges ahead. Worth reading.

Dominika

Ok.

Reviewed in Poland on May 13, 2023

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Starannie i ładnie wydane.

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Santi

Un chute de realismo sobre nuestro papel en la transformación (y destrucción) del planeta

Reviewed in Spain on June 26, 2018

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Gran libro-resumen sobre la gran crisis ecológica que vivimos en el planeta desde la explosión poblacional de H.sapiens. Tremendamente duro, pero a la vez apasionante. Un chute de realismo, nada mágico, una patada a nuestra especie conformista y alienada. En mi caso acabé el libro pensando "joder, hagamos algo para parar esto!". Pero también hay riesgo de acabar pensando que ya no hay nada que hacer para salvarnos...

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Karthick S

A wonderful book on the Environmental Issues Humans cause!

Reviewed in India on November 1, 2017

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I grew up in a Sub Urban area with lot of vegetation around. As I grew up, the place was just being swallowed up by more and more houses. One of the hassles of vegetation was that we used to get lot of uninvited guests to our home - weird insects, bats, worms and scary Snakes. One of the key lessons I was taught as a kid was what to do to protect myself from Snakes. I vividly remember a few six foot long venomous Vipers that we spotted in home. Today, the area has completely become an Urban jungle. Snakes have disappeared with more houses. We are happy with the fact that we need not worry about those snakes. But what has happened to those snakes? How has the loss of habitat affected them? What about other harmless insects and bats? A few endemic species could have disappeared. All because of us - Human Beings. This book, 'The Sixth Extinction' is exactly about this. How Human Beings are causing the sixth major extinction event of the world and how it is happening right in front of our eyes.

I was looking for a book in the last minute before my flight. I randomly came across this book on Amazon and decided to give it a shot. One thing I worried was that the book would turn out to be one of those preachy materials on the ill effects of Global Warming. This book by Elizabeth Kolbert is exactly that, but the author conveys it with a well strung research, tales and subtlety. Being a Journalist, the author has done justice to the job by spending a lot of time with fossil collectors, museum directors, biologists and conservationists to bring home the point of how we (Human Beings) are destroying the planet.

While unsurprisingly, the major cause of the Sixth Extinction is Global Warming, the author also points out to other strong factors that weigh in - Fragmentation of Habitats due to developing Urban Clusters and Forced movement of Species across continents, both knowingly and accidentally.

The author starts the book with how various species of Frogs have started disappearing in the recent years across Latin America. Frogs have been one of the resilient species on the face of earth. They have survived for the past 250 million years. Now, they have suddenly started disappearing. After a lot of research, it has been identified that Chytrid Fungus causes this. Chytrid Fungus is not a native found in Latin America. Humans have introduced it somehow and they have started playing havoc. These species that causes havoc are known as Invasive Species. Evolution would have equipped the frogs to save itself from known dangers, but then it never came across this Fungus in the past millions of years. Across the years as humans started travelling, we have introduced so many of these species.

What I really loved about the book was the abundance of information provided - 1. How Fossils were identified and unearthed in the 19th century and the efforts of Georges Cuvier and Charles Darwin identifying the fossils and establishing the first theories on Extinction of Species. 2. The relationship between increasing latitude and increasing number of species. While in the poles, there is nearly no diversity, there is abundance of diversity near the equator given the favorable climate. 3. How Global Warming is making the Ocean more and more acidic - Water absorbs excess Carbon Di Oxide to form Carbonic Acid. This in turn affects the calcification process required to form Coral Reefs which are the base of Ocean Life. 4. How it is not only animals that move, but also trees with change in temperatures. Some trees expand itself at a rapid rate through pollination and in the process negates the space for less invasive species. 5. How the chances of a species survival reduces with reducing habitat and fragmentation. Certain species are endemic to Islands and they often disappear soon. The same happen with increasing Urbanization.

It has been established that we are not the only Human Species that has lived in this planet - one of the key human species that has lived alongside us is Neanderthals. It has been established that on an average nearly 4% of our DNA contains Neanderthal DNA. It has also been established that Human Beings or Homo Sapiens in specific were the main cause of Neanderthals extinction. After a long struggle, Neanderthal's DNA has been established. They are almost same as that of us. But over the years, some change has happened that has made us so dangerous. Some tiny little Gene has made us so superior to the rest of the species - that we have even killed our sister species. So, the author wonders what is this 'Mad Gene' that causes that change.

The author finally concludes with a positive note by capturing some of the super human efforts taken by conservationists to protect the few endangered species and says our hope is that. While, we have singly killed all those species, we also go in great length to protect the remaining species. Countries like Australia and New Zealand have strict Biosecurity laws to protect their native species. If the Mad Gene signifies despair, the same Mad Gene signifies Hope as well.

On the flip side, I found that the author had used too many Biological names for the Species which became too tough to follow at a point. I would rate this as one of the best books I have read about our planet and the species that live on it. Having read Yuval Noah Harrari's 'Sapiens' augmented this book very well, as Sapiens had established how we became the conquering deadly species that we are.

If you have a little iota of guilt that we cause to the environment, this book is a must read!

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