Environmental History of Water - Global views on community water supply and sanitation

IWA Publishing

Contents

INTRODUCTION: EARLY CULTURES AND WATER

Petri S. Juuti, Tapio S. Katko & Heikki S. Vuorinen

Water shapes the environment, revising its history and future - thus to a very great extent it shapes our lives too. Humans have dwelled on earth some 200 000 years and during major part of it has lived as a hunter-gatherer, gradually growing in number and inhabiting every corner of the world. But archaeological findings or written sources concerning water and sanitation can be found only concerning relatively recent times. Thus in reconstructing the history of water and sanitation of this hunter-gatherer phase, we have to rely on analogies from later societies. The modern anthropological studies and recorded mythologies of indigenous people play an important role in forming these analogies and also observing primates and other more evolved mammals can give us useful information.

The earliest sites where a safe supply of water was found were springs and freshwater streams such as small creeks. Not just humans but also other mammals prefer flowing water. Some mammals even dig water holes for themselves. For example, elephants can dig quite deep pits for water in dry areas and seasons. The earliest type of well, the pit well or a deep water hole without any fortified walls, is the forerunner of the first properly constructed dug or sunk well. Water was lifted from the well using the means available at that time, first with a bucket or a similar vessel, or possibly with the help of a rope or other tools.

Humankind established permanent settlements about 10 000 years ago, when people adopted an agrarian way of life. This new type of livelihood spread everywhere and the population began to expand faster than ever before. This sedentary agricultural life made it possible to construct villages, cities and eventually states and for all these first settlements water was very essential part of life.

The oldest known written sources date back to about 5000 years ago, whilst archeological records extend roughly to the same era when the first great civilizations - Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus culture, and China - also appeared. The history of water supply and sanitation in early civilizations is presented by Petri S. Juuti in his chapter titled, "First innovations of water supply and sanitation". In his chapter, he discusses various traditions and myths linked with water. For instance, people have prayed for rain, fertility, waterfowl and fish from Mother Water etc. A well or spring was considered to be a living creature and its spirit was believed to be frightened by noise or whistling. It got irritated if it was mucked up or dishonoured and that could happen if water was drawn from a well with a dish washing bucket. This is also well illustrated in the chapter "Water and Indigenous People in a White Settler Society: The Case of the Maori of New Zealand" by Ngahuia Dixon in the third part of this book.

Religious beliefs connected to water served a good purpose even though the reasoning behind them was not what we would now call scientific. Nevertheless, they taught people to respect pure water and to adopt safe customs.

Our knowledge of actual water supply and sewage dates back to the same era as of the early urban settlements (Figure 3.2). The earliest known permanent settlement, which can be classified as urban, is Jericho from 8000-7000 BC, located near springs and other bodies of water. In Egypt there are traces of wells and in Mesopotamia there are traces of stone rainwater channels from 3000 BC. It is estimated that Ur, one of the first and best known cities of Mesopotamia, had already in 2000 BC rainwater and drainage systems and the water closet was quite common in private houses. From the early Bronze Age city of Mohenjo- Daro, located in modern Pakistan, archaeologists have found hundreds of ancient wells and water pipes.

In the New World there was a wholly independent development of civilisation: the Inca, Mayan and Mexican cultures developed urban centres with relatively sophisticated systems.

Around the year 3000 BC the draw well with counterpoise lift was invented in Babylonia and for over 2000 years it was almost the only effective means of drawing water. The counterpoise lift was spread by the Greeks and Romans from the Near East to Central and Western Europe, Africa and eventually also to the North. In Egypt it was called a shaduf and was used to lift water from the river Nile. A windlass or winch was used when the well was very deep and the counterpoise lift mainly in less deep draw wells or irrigation channels. The windlass and counterpoise lift were followed by windmill engines, crank reels and hand pumps. The first tube wells were built at the end of the 19 century. Besides technological development, ideas and philosophies about water also evolved.

In Europe, already in Minoan culture, water was considered to be holy. Minoans started the building of the first palace city around 4000 years ago. It evolved further and become presumably the oldest European city culture with advanced water and sewage systems and other infrastructure (Figures 3.1, 3.3 & 3.4). Later, the early Greek philosopher Thales (app. 624-546 BC) said: "Arkhen de ton panton hydor - Water is the beginning of all" It has been suggested that already the Etruscans had a highly developed water supply in their cities. Later the Romans used this knowledge in their own systems. From antiquity the best known are the gravitational water pipes or aqueducts built by the Romans. By the heyday of the Roman Empire, the water supply system of the city of Rome consisted of 19 aqueducts with a total length of 600 kilometres. Water was led through aqueducts to cities, where it was distributed mostly by a network of lead pipes. Private consumers were charged by the diameter of their own pipes. There were also numerous public toilets in Rome.

The importance of water for the health of people was a widely held view of ancient Greek and Roman writers. The role of water in health is described in the chapter "Water and health in antiquity: Europe's legacy" by Heikki S. Vuorinen. In the Roman Empire the destiny of the state relied heavily on the shoulders of soldiers. The army used water for many purposes. The chapter titled "Water Supply in Late Roman Army" by Ilkka Syvanne describes these uses circa AD 300-640.

FIRST INNOVATIONS OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

Petri S. Juuti

4.1. GENERAL BACKGROUND

The first major innovations of water supply and sanitation were probably the well and the toilet. Without these two simple but necessary innovations, human life and wellbeing face constant risk and nature is under serious stress. If these simple basic facilities are in good order, health problems and environmental risks can be avoided. Of course one should keep in mind that different kinds of water-lifting devices in the use of irrigation are also thousands of years old. The history of wells and toilets is as long as the history of permanent human settlements. What makes these innovations so important is the fact that wells and latrines are still in use and will certainly remain so also in the future. The well and the toilet are still the most common technical systems in the service of mankind.

Water is a necessity for human life and thus it also plays a vital role in many religions; springs and wells are frequently mentioned in their scriptures. For example, the first few books of the Old Testament have several descriptions of building, using, owning and securing wells. (Spier 1989, 34)

19. Isaac's servants dug in the valley and discovered a well of fresh water there.

20. But the herdsmen of Gerar quarreled with Isaac's herdsmen and said, "The water is ours!" So he named the well Esek, [dispute] because they disputed with him.

21. Then they dug another well, but they quarreled over that one also; so he named it Sitnah. [opposition]

22. He moved on from there and dug another well, and no one quarreled over it. He named it Rehoboth, [room] saying, "Now the Lord has given us room and we will flourish in the land." (Genesis 26:19-22)

There were disputes over wells and the right to use them, especially in the dry areas, where the well has been of vital importance. Toilets haven't aroused the interest of artists, philo- sophers or folklorists as much as wells. But it is not surprising that there were disputes over toilets, especially if they were too near a neighbor's border or house. Toilets have been found repugnant and in many countries and cultures talking about bodily functions is still a taboo. The caretakers of latrines are often seen as the lowest of all people. In poor living conditions the social status of tenants was visible in their location - the further one lived from the toilets the better status. Toilets have never been as appreciated a meeting place as wells, however, public toilets were a place for meeting people in ancient times. And although the well-tended outhouse with several adjacent seats in many bigger houses or factories offered a moment of rest in between heavy work. (Juuti 2003, 47-48; Juuti & Wallenius 2005, 25, 87.)

One of the oldest remaining references to the disposal of human waste is found in the Old Testament:

12. Designate a place outside the camp where you can go to relieve yourself.

13. As part of your equipment have something to dig with, and when you relieve yourself, dig a hole and cover up your excrement. (Deuteronomy 23:12-13)

Emptying toilets and carrying water (Figure 4.2) were — and still are — considered to be unpleasant tasks. These tasks were usually assigned to the lowest social group available — women, children and slaves. The task of water carrier was also used as a punishment, for example: "They continued, "Let them live, but let them be woodcutters and water carriers for the entire community'.' So the leaders' promise to them was kept'.' (Joshua 9:21)

Until the birth of water and sewage works, toilets and wells were the main technological innovations in the service of the humankind. These simple solutions have been in general use for thousands of years and are today not radically different from those used in the past. For example, most people in Europe and the USA took their drinking water from private wells until the last quarter of the 19th century. It must be noted that also public fountains were used in many countries till the mid 1800s and even later in some cases. (Figure 4.3) The needs of fire fighting, businesses and industries, real estate owners, and health authorities hastened the birth of water works. (Keating 1989; Juuti 2001; Juuti & Katko 2005)

This chapter describes the general development of wells and toilets up to the early 20th century.

4.2. WATER HOLES AND FIRST WELLS

It is impossible to say for sure where the first human-made well was. It is easier to search for wells that still exist. There are several remains of wells from the Neolithic era. For example, two very old wells have been found in Israel and Cyprus. In northern Israel, a well that is roughly 10,000 years old was found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B settlement of Atlit Yam. The well was constructed by dry-stone walling, and its diameter is 1.5 meters with a depth of 5.5 meters. In western Cyprus, an old well has been found at Kissonerga-Mylouthkia. It is about 7-8 meters deep and from the same era as the Atlit Yams well. (arcl.ed.ac.uk/arch/ annrept/report99/; witwib.com/Atlit_Yam, accessed Aug 24, 2005)

While wells were built already 10 000 years ago, permanent places for drawing water are even older than that. The oldest constructions relating to the use of water were used for irrigation. Springs and wells have not just been places to get water but also important meeting points for thousands of years. They have also served as boundary markers, places of worship and many other purposes.

The earliest sites where safe supplies of water were found were springs and freshwater streams such as small creeks. Not just humans but also other mammals prefer flowing water and some mammals even dig water holes themselves. For example, elephants dig quite deep well-like holes in dry areas. An average elephant needs approximately 160 liters per day; therefore the need for an adequate water source is obvious. If there is no water available, for example, in the river, they dig wells in the dried riverbeds with their trunks and bring the water up. In the dry seasons also other mammals use elephant wells. So the pit well, a deep water hole without any fortified walls, is the forerunner of the dug well. Water has been taken from this sort of well by whatever means were accessible, usually just using simple vessels. One possibility was to form a chain of water carriers — this enabled the drawing of water from deep in the ground without advanced technology. In this way it was possible to reach water lying tens of meters deep. Water has been lifted from the dug well using the means available at that time, first with a bucket or a similar vessel, or possibly with the help of a rope or other tools.

Approximately 3000 BC the draw well with counterpoise lift (Figure 4.4) was invented in Babylonia and it was for over 2000 years almost the only effective means of drawing water. The counterpoise lift was spread by the Greeks and Romans from the Near East to Central and Western Europe and eventually also to Scandinavia. (Toivonen et al. 1981, 42; Katko 1996, 26.) In Egypt it was called a shaduf and was used to lift water from Nile. Traditionally a draw well was built from wood, but some iron fortification might also have been used. However, the column, the counterpoise lift, the bucket pole and the bucket were wooden. If there was a need for extra weight to counterweight the bucket, it was usually made of a heavier material.

4.3. MONEY DOESN'T STINK - EARLY TOILETS AND WELLS

The earliest known permanent city-like settlement was Jericho, dating from 8000-7000 BC, which was near springs and other bodies of water. In Egypt there are traces of wells from 3000 BC and in Mesopotamia there are traces of stone rainwater channels from same era. It is estimated that one of the first and best known cities of Mesopotamia, Ur, had already in 2000 BC rainwater drainage systems and the water closet was quite common in private houses.

The Indus civilization, from its emergence in the early third millennium BC to its collapse in the early second, is best known from the excavations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, located in modern Pakistan. Between these two cities lie several hills where the remnants of other cities of the same culture can be found. In the Bronze Age city of Mohenjo-Daro, there are still to be seen ancient wells and water pipes. The Indus culture was highly developed and similar to Mesopotamia and Egypt. Houses were well built and spacious, as were baths, which had brick sewers. (Gray 1940, 939-946)

Many houses in Mohenjo-Daro had a well inside the building. Wells were usually round, sometimes oval shaped, the floor level was stone or brick and the brick lining went deep down. There were altogether some 700 wells and the average distance to the nearest well was only 17 meters. This is an absolutely unique example in the history of water supply. The main innovation was nevertheless storing the water in advance where it was needed in the city for easy access and use.

Almost every house in Mohenjo-Daro had a toilet, placed on the street side of the house, so that wastewater was easy to dispose of into street gutters. Washing places were right next to the toilets. Bath and household water, wastewater from toilets and rainwater were usually led through brick-lined pits and then through the outlet to the street gutters instead of leading them there directly. In some cases the gutters were situated too close to the wells and it is possible that wastewater contaminated the drinking water. The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro depict a community in which private and public hygiene were maintained effectively and the water supply of which was adequately protected from contamination. (Foil et al. 1993, 1-7; Gray 1940, 939-946; Wijmer 1992, 12; Jansen 1993, 17) The Indus culture is a prime example of a functional solution to sanitation problems in early times.